intro chapter1.html chapter2.html chapter3.html TIRUKKURAL An Abridgement of Śāstras R. Nagaswamy 2. TIRUKKURAḶ OVERVIEW
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There is no gem in the whole field of Tamiḻ literature more precious than Tirukkuṟaḷ by Thiruvaḷḷuvar written either before or after its composition. He is a master of Tamiḻ language as reflected in his choice of words and their power to communicate in a striking manner. As one moves through his text, the reader will be simply astounded with his knowledge of lifestyle and worldview. He can take one word and spin it with different forms onto a couplet, taking the reader to the highest sphere of understanding which would still remain beyond reading it to give more comprehension. துப்பார்க்குத் துப்பாய துப்பாக்கித் துப்பார்க்குத் துப்பாய தூஉம் மழை. — 2.2 The more one is learned, the more he appreciates the subtler meanings of writings. There is a popular saying in Tamiḻ, “If you take a mustard seed and drill a hole in it and pour seven oceans, there will be still more in it and that is Kuṟaḷ.” Each couplet is a small poetic form but pragmatic with such a vast content of meaning, one feels he needs to learn more. It is clear that Tirukkuṟaḷ cannot be fully comprehended by even the average reader. It is not possible to translate it in the conventional format as has been attempted by many scholars. All those attempts are imperfect because they are trying to give the exact equivalent of the Tamil words in English. The Tirukkuṟaḷ is not that but contains a completely suggestive meaning in the background and can be likened to an Upaniṣad in Tamiḻ. Tirukkuṟaḷ by Thiruvaḷḷuvar is the most celebrated work in Tamiḻ, which has received worldwide recognition for its unique character. It is essentially a work on dharma, consisting of 1330 poetic couplets, divided into three major volumes titled — Aṟattupāl, Poruṭpāl, Kāmattuppāl. Each volume is divided into a number of parts, each part into chapters (adhikāram), and each chapter with ten couplets with separate heading. There are 130 adhikāras thus each with 10 verses each. Each part of a volume carries an uneven number of adhikāras, as below: Each couplet consist of two lines in a meter called Kuṟaḷ (short verse), with the first line being generally long and the second short. There are differences of opinion among scholars on whether the titles furnished were originally given by the author or were added later. There are some fanciful stories about the author but we know his name was Thiruvaḷḷuvar, and his work is called Tirukkuṟaḷ. Vaḷḷuvar is associated with Mylapore, a central part of Chennai now and his wife was Vāsuki Ammai. A 17th-century text in Tamiḻ Jñāṇāṇavaraṇa Viḷakam calls him a great Śaivite saint who originated in Śaiva Santana Paramparā such as Tirumūlar, Śivavākyar and others who were held as great mystics. There are several commentaries on this work almost from the 13th century, the most celebrated one being that of Parimēlaḻagar, who is said to have been a priest in the Viṣṇu temple of Kāñci. He, however, quotes from the Vedas and also Śaiva Āgamās. His commentary is famous among the Tamiḻ commentators. There are ten ancient commentators known from various sources. The list is as follows: The commentaries of the last five have not been traced. There is evidence to show that there were commentaries before Parimēlaḻagar. His successors have mostly followed him. There is one commentator Paritiyār, whose commentary is brief but in most cases, he gives a Śaivite version in his interpretation. Vaḷḷuvar’s language and vocabulary are extraordinary and beautiful. He follows the dharma śāstras in expressing order, advice, or negatively suggesting positive meanings. Obviously, he is one of the greatest thinkers in Tamiḻ literature, and as the great Tamil Poet Subramanya Bhārati, sang in his poem that by giving Vaḷḷuvar to the world, the Tamiḻ country reached the sky in glory. (வள்ளுவன் தன்னை உலகினிக்கே தந்து வான்புகழ் கொண்ட தமிழ்நாடு). Before going to other aspects I want to say that there was an English Governor then at Madras, Ellis by name, who was an administrator under the British East India Company, who was not a Christian missionary, but a true lover of Tamiḻ literature. He studied under some traditional Tamiḻ scholars and soon mastered the Tamiḻ Language and started composing in Tamiḻ. He has left a stone inscription in Chennai, in chaste Tamiḻ poetry, stating he was inspired by Vaḷḷuvar’s poetry (he repeats the Kuṟaḷ). He had dug seven drinking water wells in North Madras which still exist and the region is called seven wells. There could therefore be no two opinions that Vaḷḷuvar stands as a Himalayan peak among Tamiḻ poets. It must also be said that the 17th to 19th century was a great period when Christian missionaries took an interest in the study of the Tamiḻ language with the coastal trade, bringing many European visitors to South India. The paid Christian missionaries were also seeking the help of European rulers to convert people to the Christian faith. Their most important assignment was soon turned to attack the local faith which they propagated as the base Brāhmanical religion. In this venture, they propagated that the regional language was far superior and glorious while the Northern language was alien which had suppressed the regional language. I cite a few examples added in this study of the Christian view on Tirukkuṟaḷ. I have been studying the structured layout of Tirukkuṟaḷ in the overall scenario of the early Saṅgam Literature, mainly the: I have already made it clear that the Saṅgam anthology of aham and puṟam group of songs were essentially based on Nāṭya Śāstra division as śṛṅgāra/lāsya/sukumāra group to which the aham group belongs and aviddha exploits puṟam group. However, the main thrust of these poems is perfected by the four Puruṣārthās — dharma - aṟam, artha - poruḷ and kāma - iṉpam (and mokṣa) in the poems themselves. I have also shown that Tolkāppiyam was mainly influenced by Naṭya Śāstra tradition with its chapters especially aham, puṟam, meipaṭu, kaḷavu, kaṟpu etc. I have also shown the most important text Cilapatikāram is a nāṭaka-kāpiyam, which is entirely laid out on the basis of Nāṭya Śāstra. It is against these studies that, Tirukkuṟaḷ also needs to be studied. The dates of these groups of ancient Tamiḻ literature are now fairly clear — the first century B.C.E., to the second century CE. The present claim is the first century B.C.E. I have no objection to this date and place it along with Saṅgam anthologies, Tolkāpiyam and Cilappatikāram. Based on the discussion thus far, I am presenting the basic tenets of Vaḷḷuvar as being that of the Vedic system of lifestyle, which is an alternate approach. In this regard, an episode in the Cilappatikāram particularly needs attention. At the very beginning, Cilappatikāram introduces the marriage of Kaṇṇaki and Kōvalaṉ, who are the central characters of the work, both belonging to the merchant community - Vaṇikār. They were adherents of different religions - one was a follower of the Ajīvika faith, while the other was a follower of the Jaina faith, as specifically mentioned in the text itself. However, their marriage was performed according to the Vedic system as directed by a Vedic Brāhmaṇa (māmutu-pārppāṉ). The Pāṇigrahaṇa system was followed where the bride and groom held their hands together and the whole marriage was as per “maṟaivaḻi” — Vaidika system. The text is based on the glorification of the “kaṟpu” system of marriage — which is laid in the Vedas. This episode makes it absolutely clear that irrespective of their faiths — be it Jainism, Buddhism, or Ajīvika, the lifestyle of the householder of India followed the Vedic Dharma. The second point I would like to emphasize is Aśoka’s edicts. I have shown earlier that Aśoka’s Dharma was the age-old Vedic Upaniṣadic system which he calls paurāṇi prakṛti, the “ancient system”. His edicts are nothing but verbatim repetition of the Śīksavalli of the Taittiriya Upaniṣad. Vaḷḷuvar’s Tirukkuṟaḷ should be evaluated in the context of all these backgrounds. There are a few points that need to be stressed at the beginning.
  • Vaḷḷuvar’s work is based on dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa which are the four puruṣārthas of the Vedic system. The main division of his work is titled Aṟam meaning Dharma, Poruḷ meaning Artha and Kāmam meaning Inpam a clear induction of the Vedic puruṣārthas.
  • Vaḷḷuvar has accepted and writes in his text the fourfold Varṇa system called caste system as Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdras. He has not considered them as has been projected by modern selfish politicians.
  • Vaḷḷuvar has accepted the four Āśrama systems — Brahmacāri, Gṛhasta, Vānaprasta and Sanyāsa.
  • He has accepted the Vedic rituals of pañca-mahā-yajñās to Deva, Ṛṣi, Pitṛ, Atithi and living beings. He also emphasizes the importance of performing these rituals.
 I am elaborating in the succeeding parts that he was a true follower of the Vedic Dharma Śāstra tradition in all his work. The layout of his work is nothing but the layout of the Dharma Śāstras of Manu, Yājñavalkya, Āpastamba, Bodhāyana, and others followed by Artha Śāstra and Nāṭya Śāstra. I will be concluding my work with this observation that many scholars mainly Christian writers that Vaḷḷuvar’s system is a unique Tamiḻ system while the Hindu system was offensive. I am praising these scholars at the end because all the praises they heaped on Kuṟaḷ and on Vaḷḷuvar would go to the Vedic system. Vaḷḷuvar was a brilliant exponent of the age-old Vedic system and a part of that whole Indian system. All the encomiums of scholars go to the ancient Vedic Hinduism which always emphasized the same darśana, the Brāhmins who were upright and impartial in their dealings were considered the model of humanity, as declared by Buddha, Aśoka and all great thinkers. There could be no doubt that Vaḷḷuvar was the most outspoken champion of the Vedic tradition. In fact, even the most serious Western scholars have commented that Tirukkuṟaḷ is in the footsteps of Bhagavad Gīta. Like the upaniṣadic sages, Vaḷḷuvar has given a Vedic Upaniṣad in Tamiḻ, so much so the people call it the Tamiḻ Veda on the personal and communal lifestyle of man. In Sanskrit tradition, the earliest literary compositions of poetry are the Vedas. There are two parts, rituals, and eternal teachings dealing with understanding the power of each individual soul, the ātma, the latter being called the Vedantic Upaniṣads. Leaving aside the ritual aspects some of which are primitive in nature as they were composed nearly five thousand years ago, the second part, the Vedāntic Upaniṣads are thrilling utterances of ancient Indian seers that remain marvels of universal appeal. As they sprang from the deepest of inner revelation, they are called “Śrutis”, the voice heard from the inner self of the noblest of Indian seers, the Ṛṣis. Though there was no recognizable script then and most of them were accented words, they discovered a system of committing to memory not only the words and sentences but also the individual syllables and the origin of each and every sound. They were able to preserve the entire text without change or pronunciation. The United Nations has recognised this system as a unique contribution of the human mind to preserve ancient thoughts. Thus, the Vedāntic doctrine has come down for the past few thousand years. There were many thinkers over several centuries who learned this body of literature, who were experiencers and practitioners of these precepts, and were of pure hearts, with no likes or dislikes. They cherished their life principles in every living being and compiled their experiences, for the benefit of their successors. Great thinkers like Manu, Yājñavalkya, Gautama, Āpastamba, and Bodhāyana have been instrumental in shaping the understanding of these principles through their writings which came to be called “Dharma Śāstras”. Dharma is that which sustains a civilized way of living “dhāraṇa iti dharma”, which was conceived as a chariot on which civilization will march. These were all based on the Vedāntic principles and are recollected in the code of books. Thus, they are the Vedānta for the life of a man and were called “recollections” “Smṛtis”, otherwise, called “Dharma Śāstras”. They are not originals like the Vedas but assumed the same authority as the Vedas. To these two bodies of works, “Śruti” and “Smṛti” added what we may call “DO’S” & “DON’TS”, which they called “vidhis” and “niṣedas”. These forms gradually assumed the power of law and formed the “core ideas” of what we call the Dharma of Land — the “Śāstras”. In the early stages of human history, the population was unimaginably sparse. People lived in small, scattered groups across various regions. Migration was a common occurrence as these groups moved in search of resources and better living conditions. They were the pillars of the four Vedic traditions including their customs and manners. The teachings of “Dharma Śāstras” assumed two aspects of Indian systems as upadeśa counsels, and ādeśa — order, both combined. The people were made to realize the teachings were not only enforceable but also benevolent advice as the Upaniṣad said “This is the order and this is the advice” — eṣa ādeśa — eṣa upadeśa. So, Dharma was both advice and enforceable by law. Aśoka, the great Indian monarch has left several edicts on stone walls — showing this ancient tradition, paruaṇi prakṛti. At the end of the edict, he says, “This is my advice and is the order to be obeyed.” Dharma is not a threatening force but an advisory law. As the population grew and migration to various places of distance became common, minor variations arose among the regional customs. The Dharma Śāstras were aware of the need to accommodate the minor changes while retaining the core laws. While they emphasised the core values, they also advised the adoption of minor regional or group characters. For example, Gautama emphasized core laws, Manu, Yājñavalkya, Bodhāyana, and Āpastamba clearly approved the regional variations. The concept of steamrolling a culture was never the case in Indian religion. So, the clarion call of one group imposing one’s concept on others had no role in Indian life. Similar to many forces being recognised as multiple divine powers and worshipped as multiple gods, the social life also had varying conducts, customs, and manners that were perfectly accepted which became the backbone of the Indian system, while throughout the country, the Indian system emphasized respect for multiple ways of living within a common code of life. It never thrusts one form alone as the way of religion or lifestyle. Unlike the occidental system which thrusts its concept as the one that should survive and all others should be converted to their own, the Indian system accepted multiplicity of life and customs, so much so there are several Dharma Śāstras propounded by a number of them. For example, several royal copper plates of the Pallavas, Chōḻas, Pāṇdyas, and others, show over 15 groups of followers of Dharma Śāstras living in Tamiḻnāṭu among the Vedic colonies like: The above are mentioned among the Vedic Brāhmaṇas to whom the King Rājēndra Chōḻa gifted land and house sites at Puttūr near Tañjāvūr, where over 1000 Vedic Brāhmins were settled. Each of these groups had their own Dharma Śāstras and followed them. At this stage, it may be necessary to keep in mind that the Dharma Śāstras are generally divided into three parts as Dharma Sūtras, Gṛhya Sūtras and Kalpa Sūtras; the Dharma Sūtras generally deal with legal aspect, the Gṛhya Sūtras with domestic life and the Kalpa Sūtras on ritual sacrifices. However, there may be some overlap between the first two. We are not concerned with third namely Kalpa Sūtras. It is important to know that as far as the first two chapters are concerned, the Dharma Śāstras of Manu and Yājñavalkya are the most popular, both dealing mainly with personal life and governmental (Royal) functions including civil and judicial administrations. Among them, Manu’s text is the earliest as it is closer to the Vedic age and therefore gets primordial attention. There is a common misconception about Manu’s text in recent times, with certain unscrupulous politicians misinterpreting the content as pertaining to religious life and opposing it. This misunderstanding stems from a lack of context and a nuanced understanding of the text’s original intent. The very first Sūtra of Manu says it deals with extremely honest scholars who maintain absolute impartiality in dealing with men and matters. These individuals are free from pride and prejudice, desires and hatred, and rely on their inner conscience to make judgments. The Sūtra says that the text pertains to laukika dharma, or worldly lifestyle, rather than religious matters. The question of extremism has no place in Manu. We will be seeing many verses including the phrases that are repeated verbatim in Tirukkuṟaḻ. Similar is the case with Yājñavalkya Smṛti. Another character of Indian life is the role of what is called lineage, and the Dharma Sūtra plays a crucial role in an individual’s life. Every family especially the Vedic Brāhmins and Kings and those who claim lineage among the Kṣatriyas and the Vaiśyas that they have preserved to this day their gotras name and sūtra of the sage. The gotras are the personal lineage, and the sūtras are the collective code they follow. If you ask them, they will mention gotras such as Atri, Bhāradvaja, Gautama, Kauśika, and Agastya, and so on. In addition, they will mention the Sūtra like Āpastamba, Bodhāyana, Aśvalāyana, Kaṇva, Agastya, etc., which are their Dharma Śāstras they follow. Though they belong to the clan of some Āchāryās who came later like Rāmanuja’s Vaishnavism or Śaivism, they are in fact the followers of the Āpastamba or Bodhāyana Sūtras. Even if their religious denomination is different, the Sūtra group continues to operate in their domestic life like birth, marriage, death rites, etc., It is an amazing system that has come down for the four thousand years in the life of individuals in India. So these examples are considered as one group, there are so many subgroups among them based on the Sūtras. However, their core values remain the same. Similarly the caste system through the centuries was divided into four major castes as Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra; this caste system was not the creation of the Brāhmins, who are accused in modern times. The caste system arose from profession from time immemorial. There are in the Vedas more than 150 castes/professions in the Vedic times. So, these material divisions through the times in centuries are attributed to God as not based on birth but on individual profession and quality, Brāhmaṇas were one of the castes created according to Indian tradition. The Dharma Śāstras Brāhmaṇas were created for the protection of dharma in the society. Therefore they were entrusted with the responsibility to act as judicial officers to help in the maintenance of law in the country. This social customs need to be kept in mind when we read Tirukkuṟaḷ. Another important factor that needs grasping is social mobility. The Dharma Śāstra of Manu and others speak of eight forms of marriages, which are not based on castes but situations. Nor did they prohibit inter-caste marriages in the early period. Inter-caste marriages were quite common. For example, Brāhmins marrying other caste girls was quite common. The Brāhmin girls were married to Kings and King’s daughters or relatives married Brāhmins attested by epics and epigraphy. For example, Asvattama was a Brāhmaṇa and son of Āchārya Droṇa. His son was Pallava. The Chōḻas claimed Kāśyapa gotra — Karikālaṉ’s son Kiḷḷivaḷavaṉ married a Nāga girl. The progeny of mixed caste were not prohibited at the time of Manu but the progenies were assigned specific professions, but it only had to be legal marriage; it had to be done in the presence of Agni and elders and bridegroom taking a vow to protect the girl till the end of his life. Vaḷḷuvar’s birth as the son of Brāhamaṇa and Pariah girl should be viewed in the light of the custom prevalent at that time and not as described by G.U. Pope, who in the 19th century tried to portray him as a Christian. Pope also forgot one vital point. In order to become a Christian, one has to get himself baptized (“Jñāna Snānam”) by a priest. Pope in his imaginary account of Vaḷḷuvar has not mentioned this vital event, which proves deliberate writings in his account of Vaḷḷuvar. One can say that he did not study any proper Indian system prevalent then as he frankly admitted his account of Vaḷḷuvar as being imaginary fiction to suit his conversion motive. Any average historian will brush aside Pope’s account as absolute rubbish. To give it the proper perspective, I have included Pope’s account of Vaḷḷuvar as published in 1886 so that the reader can see for himself the inadmissible nature of Pope’s history. Another point that needs attention is, that this country (India) was divided by Manu into three major zones as Brahmaṛṣi Deśa, Madhya Deśa and Ārya Deśa (also called Ārya Varta). The country west of Kurukṣetra (including) Pañcaśīla, Sauraṣṭra, etc., were called Brahmaṛṣi Deśa. The land between the Himalayas in the North, Vindhyas in the West of Prayāg — as Madhya Deśa and the country West of the Eastern Ocean, East of the Western Ocean and bounded by mountains and sea was called Ārya Varta or Ārya Deśa. Please notice that the division of the country was based on geographical location and not on linguistic differences. Interestingly, Manu does not even refer to Dakṣina Deśa — the southern country, not that there were different languages. There were rudimentary states that were gradually evolving in different regions. As Manu was the oldest lawgiver, it is evident that at his time even Tamiḻnāṭu was also a part of Ārya Deśa which he also calls Yajñabhūmi. The division of the country based on languages such as that in Andhra, Karnātaka, Magadha, etc., appears to be a development that occurred later in history, indicating the considerable importance of developing languages. To put it in the proper perspective, Tamiḻnāṭu was known as the Ārya Deśa about 4000 years ago and the linguistic cohesion is a later development. It is evident from the Saṅgam literature that the ancient Tamiḻs recognized this geographical division, and when they referred the country, they would refer to it as the region spanning the Himalayas to Podikai hills (Kanyākumari). While linguistic zones were considered, they referred to it as Veṅkadam in the North to Kumari in the South (See the first Tamiḻ verse in Puṟanāṉūru). So, the social laws that were prevalent in the Tamiḻ country were the same prevailing all over India with minor variations in regions. The core rules remained the same and this must be kept in mind while studying Vaḷḷuvar’s text. Inscriptions, literature, dialects, and archaeological excavations have proved that Tamiḻnāṭu was part of one India. Though dynasties of rulers and languages differed, the legal and administrative setup remained one, throughout India. One can fully study any part of regional history and add chronology to it, which enables us to view the true state of society. This study is not to translate the whole Tirukkuṟaḷ. Many scholars have made admirable attempts, though I believe that these efforts are focused on word-for-word translations, which convey only a hundredth of the actual meaning of the Kuṛaḷ. Undoubtedly, some have provided valuable notes on them, which are extremely useful. However, my book takes a different approach. I have selected certain passages from the Kuṟaḷ and demonstrated that the content of this text is essentially an abridgment of Sanskrit Śāstras, namely the Dharma Śāstra, Artha Śāstra and Nāṭya Śāstra. The layout and structure of the country closely follow the above texts. For example, I consider that the Aṟattuppāl, the first chapter deals with the personal life of an individual, the second Poruṭppāl about royal rights and privileges, the administrative and judicial functions including punishment and other social and communal life, while the third Kāmattuppāl deals with Akatiṇai dealing with the amorous life of an individual, divided into pre-martial love and legal love that is hero, heroine and her playmate. These broad divisions must be further sub-divided as follows: 1. The Aṟattuppāl is in four sub-parts (chapters) On this, I have differed slightly from traditional division. These attributes in the first four chapters of Aṟattuppal are addressed to students and the teachers’ conduct. The Brahmacharya, Gṛhasta, Vānaprasta, and Sarva Sanyāsa are for a different attribute. The Dharma Śāstras follow this pattern of structure.
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