intro chapter2.html chapter3.html chapter4_1_1.html TIRUKKUṞAḶ An Abridgement of Śāstras R. Nagaswamy 3. Introduction
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We have already seen that some Upaniṣadic passages which are found integrated into the Puraṉāṉūṟu poems are translations of Taittiriya Upaniṣad passage on “Annam”. Similarly, I have shown that Tolkāppiyam is influenced by Bharata’s Nāṭya Śāstra, specially the poruḷ-adhikāram, ahat-tiṇai, purat-tiṇai, kaḷavu, kaṟpu, meypāṭṭu, uvamā and maṟapu, iyal and so on. The third great text Cilappatikāram is a Nāṭaka Kāvyam, following the tradition of Nāṭya Śāstra of Bharata. The present study thus completes the early group of Tamiḻ Literature with the Tirukkuṟaḷ as adoption of Dharma Śāstras, Artha Śāstra and Naṭya Śāstras, and perhaps Kāma Śāstra of Vātsyāyana. This has been extensively treated earlier by V.R.R. Dikshitar in his Tirukkuṟaḷ with reference to Artha Śāstra, U.Ve. Swaminatha Iyer, T.P. Meenakshi Sundaranar and Mu.Varadarajnar in their articles in Tirukkuṟaḷ Āraicurai, (Ed., Ki.Va. Jagannathan). My attempt here is to show that the Arattupāl is fully based on Dharma Śāstras of Manu, Yājñavalkya, Bhodhāyana, Āpastamba and others. The influence of Dharma Śāstras can be seen in some parts of Poruḷ Adhikaram as well. Thus, the conclusion that Tirukkuṟaḷ is an adoption or abridgment of Sanskrit Śāstras cannot be refuted. While its Sanskrit source is immeasurable and its indebtedness to the Hindu thoughts is unquestionable, there can be no doubt that Vaḷḷuvar was a master poet with a powerful and gripping impression and selection of thoughts that could flower into a universal outlook. His work rises to be the literature of the whole world. His creativity is at its best in this text and has eclipsed any other work he could have written. All the praises showered on Kuṟaḷ as a signal contribution, however, go to Sanskrit Śāstra-kāras who in turn have not only recorded experiences of the Vedic society but also practiced them. As Manu has mentioned, these ancient Vedic thinkers led lives of impeccable integrity. They deeply contemplated their thoughts and experiences before articulating them into their texts. It is therefore accumulation of the path of Indian society through nearly two thousand years before which they have also come down for over 2000 years to this day and continue to shape the lifestyle of most Hindus. In the late 18th to 19th century, individuals like G.U.Pope, who were Christian colonialists, sought to denigrate the Dharma Śāstras. This was done with the primary intention of facilitating the conversion of Indians by the European colonial powers of that time. No one can minimize the contribution of the ancient Vedic culture to aspects of scientific explosions and in contemporary times one cannot pardon the colonials for their criticism of the Hindu thoughts. These unfair criticisms arise from the narrow sectarian outlook that Christianity is superior to all well-organized faiths. It is to denigrate the well-organized thoughtful societies in other parts of the world, that existed a couple of thousands of years earlier to their own system. This represents an effort to undermine all philosophies other than their own. It seems that some Christians find it difficult to accept the idea of individuals from other faiths achieving salvation. The abusive tendencies of Christians have been picked up by otherwise sober Tamiḻs, who substituted love for the Tamiḻ language for a hatred of the Sanskrit language. Despite their claims of rationalism, their actions appear to be driven more by emotion, particularly their animosity towards Sanskrit. A careful study of contemporary events would show their hands for power have destroyed their own magnanimity. When they are confronted with reality now by modern research, some of them react with shock and madness. The present research on ancient Tamiḻ shows that Tamil was enriched by the Sanskrit tradition which has made the Tamiḻ language flower more beautiful and made it more fragrant. The present study of Kuṟaḷ is to show the greatness of the text through the real path and is not against any. One cannot reject these hardcore facts with which the wise will agree. Meaningless and unrealistic opposition to Sanskrit may now be fathomed from public life, otherwise one will lose the greatness of our own ancient Tamiḻ roots. Now let us see some deeper aspects of Vaḷḷuvar's plan of his work. The first part of the book begins with salutations to the knowledge system through training in akṣaras and pronunciation. The second part deals with gṛhasta dharma, in Tamiḻ “illara-iyal”, dealt with in sūtras 20 to 28. The last four couplets deal with the sanyasa āśrama. This sequence of married life followed by Sanyāsa aligns closely with the dharmas of Yājñavalkya and Āpastamba. The first Tirukkuṟaḷ is titled “In Praise of God.” It is doubtful whether the title was given by the author or later. Some scholars doubt the authorship of the titles. It appears these titles were available in the 13th century when Parimēlaḻagar wrote the commentary. However, there were earlier commentators whose commentary has not come down to us. It is unlikely the latter was added subsequently, but many of the titles do not reflect the context properly. அகர முதல எழுத்தெல்லாம் ஆதி பகவன் முதற்றே உலகு. — 1.1 The first adhikāra of the text begins with "akara mutala eḻuttellām". All syllables begin with “a”. It teaches the student of Alphabet when he is first introduced to studies with what is called “akṣarābhyāsa” in Sanskrit. As per the Vedic tradition, the initiation of a student, typically at the age of 5 or 8, commences with the practice of “akṣara”. This ritual, which marks the beginning of formal education in Hindu families, continues to be observed to this day. This is first mentioned in Taittiriya Upaniṣad called Śīkṣāvalli. Saṅkara, the advaita ācārya explains what is “varṇa svaraḥ, mātrā balam, sāma santānaḥ”. A number of verses in the first adhikāra deals later with “aṭi cērtal” - refuge in the feet of Acārya. The emphasis is evidently “aṭicērtal”. The Dharma Śāstra deals with the same concept where it calls pāda sparśana ( refers to the act of touching the feet), immediately after initiating the students - Bhodhāyana Dharmasūtra — 3rd Kāṇḍa (1.26.2). This is a common practice in Indian culture, done by students to their teachers. After initiation, the Dharma Śāstra details how the disciple should go about collecting food (Bikśācaraṇā) and bring it to the ācārya and after his approval can then eat it. This aspect deals with sustenance through food. The Bikśācaraṇā finds a place in all the Dharma Śāstras’ immediately after explaining student initiation. Interestingly, eating food is preceded by a ritual that says this food is “amṛta” for me. Amṛtābhidhānamasi, a rite we do to this day stating the food is amṛta. This is reflected in the first verse of chapter 2 in Tirukkuṟaḷ which is devoted to food. The Taittirīya Upaniṣad, begins the first heading of Varṇa, and so on which when addressing the student, has dealt with the importance of food in the same chapter. The third adhikāra of Tirukkuṟaḷ is mentioned as Nīttār Perumai i.e., “The greatness of Ascetics”. However, it seems to deal with “tapas” mentioned in Dharma Śāstra which defines tapas as niyamam, discipline - code of life or ācāra. This Kuṟaḷ begins the first verse as “oḻukkam” meaning discipline for the students. It emphasizes the process of learning to discipline themselves, which leads to self-understanding and self-growth. By controlling their speech and senses, the student can better focus on their goals and avoid distractions. This can lead to personal achievements, recognition, and fame. In this adhikāra, the word aṟam is used to denote the righteous conduct. At this stage, Āpastamba also prescribes the same type of conduct. Gautama also prescribes similar conduct for the student to control kāma, krodha, lobha, moha, mada, mātsarya, harṣa, nāṭya, gīta and so on, collectively termed as upanayādi niyama. All the Dharma Śāstras’ deal next with the chapters on married life. Gautama calls this gṛhasta dharma. Gautama (I. 48) calls self-selection by girls as Gāndharva. देव पितृ मनुष्य भूत ऋषि पूजकः (III. 28) ṛṣi yajña is a synonym of brahma yajña; for pitṛ udaka dānam; daiva yajña is to be performed in agni along with their bhārya (wife) - देव पितृ मनुष्य यज्ञाः स्वाध्याय यज्ञ बलिकर्म manuṣya yajña is a synonym of atithi yajña, guests and other human beings, bhūta yajñas are other beings, animals, birds, dogs etc., Evidently, cooked food is offered to pitṛs and human beings. svadhyāya is for brahma yajña; describing this Yājñavalkya says brahma yajña is done by recitation of scriptures, not by food offering. अन्नम् पितृ मनुष्येभ्यः देयं अपि अन्वहं जलं स्वाध्यायं सततं कुर्यात् न पचेत् अन्नं आत्मने । In relation to this, we need a brief understanding of what Emperor Aśoka intended by the term “dharma”, which he inscribed extensively on numerous rock and pillar edicts. What is dharma? According to Dharma Śāstra, dharma consists of four parts — Before we proceed, we may see a few absolute translations from Dharma Śāstras into Tirukkuṟaḷ. In the second chapter of Manu Dharma Śāstra, there is a verse which reads: श्रुत्वा स्पृष्ट्वा च दृष्ट्वा च भुक्त्वा घ्रात्वा च यो नरः न हृष्यति म्लायति स विज्ञेयः जितेन्द्रियः । (v.68) In Tirukkuṟaḷ: சுவைஒளி யூறோசை நாற்றமென் றைந்தின் வகைதெளிவான் கட்டே யுலகு. The individual who, having experienced hearing (sound), touching (feeling), tasting (food), seeing (visual), and smelling (fragrance), does not succumb to joy or aversion, is truly considered a “conqueror of indriyas (their senses)”. This verse appears in the discipline of a Brahmacāri who is expected to practice restraint from the enjoyment of senses like seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting. The set of observances that fall under niyama ācāra are mandatory for students. It is important to note that dharma sūtras does not mandate these practices for young boys before they reach maturity. Instead, these practices are intended for all other students who may continue their studies up to the age of 48. These students typically study each of the four Veda’s for an average of 12 years, or even throughout their lifetime. Therefore, indriya nigraha is an essential component of studentship.
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