intro preface.html chapter1.html chapter2.html TIRUKKURAL An Abridgement of Śāstras R. Nagaswamy 1. DHARMA ŚĀSTRAS
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Manu has mentioned the country between the Eastern ocean and the Western ocean was called Arya deśa and this could refer only to Tamil Nadu, Andhra and Karnataka (and also Kerala). After his preliminary description of explanations and Samskāras he gives the following subjects as the content of his text. It may be seen the major components of this first part are studentship, householder, recluse (Vānaprasta) and ascetics (Sanyāsa) which are applicable to individual lifestyle as given by Manu. Vaḷḷuvar follows exactly the same sequence in his Aratuppāl which is called dharma chapter. The first four chapters of Aratuppāl deal with the studentship, that is Brahmacarya. The second section is called “illaṟa-iyal” that represents the gṛhasta stage from 5th chapter to 24th chapter. The next section of Kuraḷ deals with what is called aruḷuṭaimai. It is a preliminary stage to Vānaprasta, where one gives up possession except the bare requirements, as detailed in chapters 25 through 35 called nilaiyāmai - impermanence. Here, Vaḷḷuvar compares the accumulation of wealth, property and individuality with material, costumes, jewellery and appearance on a dramatic stage, where everything is short lived including the speeches. All these will disappear in a moment and so is individual life. This chapter points out the impermanence of life in the body and the flight of life from the body on death. It emphazises the realization of death and the consequent liberation - vīṭu/mokṣa — end. This section deals with the Vānaprasta stage. The last section deals with Sarvasanyāsa, total rejection. In three chapters under the section “Turavu”, Vaḷḷuvar deals superbly with last stage of man’s existence, which ends in merging with nature called jīvan mukti which Vaḷḷuvar calls as “Iyarkai” - nature. Thus, it is clear that Vaḷḷuvar has adopted the four basic stages of life, as given in “Manu's Dharma Śāstra”, the Brahmacāri, Gṛhasta, Vānaprasta and Sanyāsa which is out and out the Hindu (Indian) concept of life. Any attempt to describe Vaḷḷuvar as done by G.U. Pope and some others, are frivolous and ignorance of total layout of Tirukkuṟaḷ. This path is not only laid out by Manu, but also the other sūtrakāras like Yājñavalkya. Sage Yājñavalkya was a Vedic ṛṣi, as many of his visionary statements are found in Upaniṣads. This is not impossible to have a different write up on his date; except to state the present text is later than that of Manu. However, he follows the same structure of Manu’s life style as Brahmacāri, Gṛhasta, Parivrā Jaka (Vānaprasta) and Sanyāsa. However, he has tagged the section on Artha immediately after Gṛhasta and after that he deals with Vānaprasta and Sanyāsa. We have also seen that besides these two texts, Bodhāyana and Apastamba have also compiled Dharma Śāstras. For example, Yājñavalkya's text has the following sequence of chapters: Yājñavalkya thus treated wealth, administration and judiciary immediately after Gṛhasta Dharma but before Vānaprasta and Yatidharma (Sanyāsa stage). In addition, he has also included Gaṇapati Kalpa (pūja) and Gṛha pūja (Navagṛha pūja) in the Gṛhasta stage. Obviously, these two stand for removal of obstacles — Vighna — human and super human (due to position of constellations). The society has moved forward recognizing impediments beyond the control of human efforts and worship included warding off such evil forces. While Manu has not included these evil effects, Yājñavalkya includes them as effects of past or present actions which we call “(ஊழ் வினை)” ūḻ vinai. Tiruvaḷḷuvar includes one chapter after Sanyāsa (turavu) as “ūḻ”, obviously after Yajnavalkya’s Śānti chapter. I have shown earlier that Vaḷḷuvar has structured his Tirukkuṟaḷ as given in Manu’s Dharma Śāstra. However, Manu deals with Vānaprasta and Sanyāsa and ends the stages of a man’s progress. Yājñavalkya has added “ūḻ vinai” due to human or planetary dispositions beyond the control of human in this life and so includes the Śāntis for their removal. Tiruvaḷḷuvar’s inclusion of “ūḻ” (pāpa) at the end of Turavu chapter is because of this and shows Vaḷḷuvar was influenced by Yājñavalkya’s Dharma Śāstra. However, it is clear that Vaḷḷuvar followed the Dharma Śāstras in his main thrust on the fourfold āśrama dharma, viz., Brahmacāri, Gṛhasta, Vānaprasta and Sanyāsa as the main chapters. Āpastamba, also has the four fold division of Brahmacāri, Gṛhasta, (Rājadharma), Vānaprasta and Sanyāsa Vidhi. Āpastamba is referred to as Sūtrakāra by Bodhāyana in his text and obviously was earlier to Bodhāyana. Bodhāyana is too detailed and does not structure his text on the clear cut division as Brahmacāri, Gṛhasta, Vānaprasta and Sanyāsa as done by Manu, Yājñavalkya and Āpastamba. He has more guidelines for mantras, yajñas and explanations in addition to dealing with the aśramas. However, he does not seem to be too concerned with Vānaprasta stage. There are some passages iin his text which seem to have definitely influenced Vaḷḷuvar. He details strict discipline for the brahmacāri vrata. He also deals with the different kinds of marriages which are mentioned as eight in number. These includin the Gāndharva marriage which deals with pre-martial union. He also details deva, ṛṣi, pitṛu tarpana and pañca-mahā-yajñas - that are also stipulated by Vaḷḷuvar in his Kural. He also describes begetting good children prajākāma. It is clear that such consistent prescriptions in many dharma śāstras, repeatedly found and also found in Vaḷḷuvar's Kuṟaḷ shows lifestyle and customs and manners are the same between the Sanskrit and Tamiḻ traditions. Since the Sanskrit tradition is professedly derived from the Vedic tradition, there could be no two different opinion that Vaḷḷuvar’s work is an abridgement of Vedic tradition. As the Dharma Śāstras are codes of observances for all the four varṇas, namely Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas, and Sūdras and all the mixed castes were controlled by these domestic laws - the common codes were dealt as prescribed in the Dharma Śāstras of Manu, Gautama and Yājñavalkya and others, were followed by Vaḷḷuvar in his poruḷ adhikāram. I have already shown that Tamiḻnaṭu was included among the ārya deśa. Yājñavalkya — (5.4), Manu ब्रह्मचारी गृहस्थो भिक्षुः वैखानस इति । तेषां गृहस्थो योनिप्रजत्वा नदिः इतरेषाम् ॥ இல்வாழ்வான் என்பான் இயல்புடைய மூவர்க்கும் நல்லாற்றான் நின்ற துணை. Gautama (III 2-3) calls a householder as “Yoni”, while Vaḷḷuvar calls him the support of other three āśramas. This concurrence shows that Vaḷḷuvar followed the Dharma Śāstras. After dealing with Brahmacāri, Gautama deals with married life that is Gṛhasta which he calls Vivāha. Gautama also speaks of eight kinds of marriages. After dealing with marriage, Gautama deals with begetting children — पुनन्ति साधवः पुत्राः (1.4.24) त्रिपुरुषं आर्षात् दश दैवात् दशैव प्राजापत्यात् They get good children, who purify the family from Naraka and worship Devas, Ṛṣis, and Pitṛs. Under the topic householder, Gautama speaks about pañca-mahā-yajña and providing alms (Bhikṣātana), atithi satkāra and ritual gifts (dāna). These are called Gṛhasta Dharma. Also in this division worship of Māta and Pitā (māta pitṛ pūja) and so on. Gautama deals with Rājadharma, the king, his qualities, education, protection of people, administration, judicial punishment etc. He follows it by a part of snātaka vrata which include dharma, artha, kāma which are called ācāra — oḻukkam in Tamiḻ. Gautama gives an interesting stipulation in dharma, focusing mid-day on material works and in the evening leading an amorous life. कुर्यात् यथा शक्ति धर्म अर्थ कामेभ्यः (Gau. I.9.46) Here again we find dharma, artha, and kāma are concerned in life. The Kuṟaḷ is however clear, that it says the gṛhasta (ilvaḷvāṉ) is the support of other three groups.
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