The term “Brāhmaṇas” is rooted in the Vedic tradition of “Seekers of Brahmam”, signifying the pursuit of ultimate knowledge – Brahmaṇāt Brahmaityuktam. They are referred to as "antaṇars" in Tamiḻ, who are known to analyze the ultimate truth. Evidently, a Brāhmaṇa is a follower of the Vedic tradition.
There are several subdivisions among the Brāhmins, based on language and region. Those divided based on language are immigrants from Telugu, Karnātaka, and Vada-deśa, among others. The Telugu-speaking Brāhmaṇas, for instance, originated from Andhradesa and continue to speak Telugu at home. Similarly, Karnātaka Brāhmaṇas speak Kannada. They are sometimes referred to as “Vaḍugas”. There also appears to have been migration from Madhyapradesh.
There is an influential, intelligent group of Brāhmaṇas now called “Vāttimās” who claim they came from Madhyama Pradesh and were “mādhyamikas”. They are confined to the Tañjāvūr district but spread in 18 “grāmas” called “Vāttima grāmas”. However, they do not speak Hindi as their mother tongue, as in the case of Telugus or Karnatakas. Probably, they were speakers of Sanskrit with a mixture of “Prākṛt”. A study of their spectial attachment to Sanskrit makes it clear they were Sanskrit speakers originally.
There is another group of Brāhmaṇas a little more in number than the “Vāttimās”, called the “Vadamās”. It seems there were two major migrations; the first chronologically earlier who were called simply “Vaḍamas”. i.e., the northerners. The second group came later who were called the northern “Vadamā” (Vadadēsattu Vadamā) who claim purer descend.
There are other groups who were settlers in the Cōḻa country, who are called “Cōḻiyās”. Within “Cōḻiyas” of the Cōḻa country, some were centered around a village named Tiruvīḻimiḻalai and were called “Vīḻiyārs”.
There was another division called “Brahad caraṇās”. They seem to be greater in number and spread all over Tamiḻnāḍu, Kerala, and Andhradesa. They were Vedic scholars performing Vedic Yāgas. They are considered devoted to Śiva, but like all Vedic scholars, they were also worshippers of Viṣṇu. Three great scholars, Sir C.V. Raman, and two more from this subdivision have won the Nobel prize for their contribution to science.
There was another group of Smārtha Brāhmaṇas called the “Aṣṭhasahasram” group. “Aṣṭhasahasram” means "eight thousand", indicating either eight thousand families or that they hailed from a place named “Eṇṇāyiram”. Evidently, they either formed a group of eight thousand families or they came from the village of that name. There is a village in the South Arcot district called “Eṇṇāyiram”, which was a great centre of Vedic learning where a Vedic college was established after Rājarāja Cōḻa by Rājēndra I (see page 347). Rājēndra, we know, came to this village and worshipped the Ugra Narasiṁha Mahā Ghorā Murti on his return from a Gangetic village. These families were thus famous during the 11th century, and they might have probably spread to other parts and retained the name “Eṇṇāyiram” as a mark of identity.
There is a specific mention in the Cōḻa times (12th centuries) of a group of Brāhmaṇas from Gauda-deśa (Bengal), led by a teacher who brought his family and close relatives and settled them around Kāñcīpuram.
Another dominant group is the Śaiva temple priests, Ādi Śaivācaryas, those who have the privilege of worshipping in Śiva temples, spread throughout Tamiḻnāḍu. They are called “Śivabrāmaṇas” in all the inscriptions, almost from the 7th century. All of them are followers of Bodhāyana’s sūtras and belong to either Gautama, Kācyapa, Kaucika, Bharadvāja, or Agastya gotra.
As the number of Śiva temples is several times greater, their population is very high. By and large, they are deeply devoted and have not only served as regular priests but have also played a great role in the economic development of Tamiḻnāḍu. As there was no banking system, they were relied upon by the society which entrusted the money, land, or cattle gifted to the temples and requested them to maintain the trust and utilize the interest or proceeds for the maintenance of the temple property.
Several thousand inscriptions through several centuries are found attesting to their role as trustees of the temples. As they were attending temple functions daily, it was convenient for others to see the utilities like burning lamps, conducting special worships, flower gardens, or musical fetes, etc., regularly, and their sterling conduct won the hearts of the people.
In the Viṣṇu temples, we had devoted Vaiṣṇavas who were called Śrī Vaiṣṇnavas, but more as Vaikhānasas in ancient inscriptions. They formed part of the ancient Vedic groups and were great exponents of Śāstras and came to be called Bhaṭṭas. Bhaṭṭa is a generic term used mainly for exponents of Śāstras.
In all the ancient Brāhmin Agrahāram, there was always in the centre, the end or entrance to the main street, a temple dedicated to Viṣṇu and so they lived as part of the main Vedic population. It is also due to the popularity of Kṛṣṇa and the Rāmāyaṇa among the Vedic scholars their unity with the Brāhmin culture was patent.
They were great Sanskrit scholars, and we find that in Cōḻa times the Vaikhānasa system was specially taught in Vedic colleges. Since the time of the Cōḻas, the recitation of Divya Prabhandam in Viṣṇu temples during daily worship grew gradually with the population of Tamiḻ.
Even the great Vaiṣṇava Ācārya Śrīmad Rāmānuja lived amidst Vedantic surroundings at Śriraṅgam and concentrated on the Brahma Sūtras and Gitā by writing his bhāṣya. As the Tamiḻ Prabandam were lucid and self-explanatory, there was no need at that point in time for many commentaries.
Thus, the Vedic tradition continued and continues to hold sway in ancient temples.
22.1. Agrahāram
Modern Agrahārams are the colonies where Vedic Brāhmaṇas lived. Castes and professions were identical from ancient times. The cultivators lived in their own colonies, the merchants, fishermen, chieftains, and Kṣatriyas had their own dedicated colonies. And so were others. Similarly, the Vedic Brāhmaṇas lived in their own colonies which were called Agrahāram. The word seems to have been derived from “Agrahāram”, i.e., the front or forefront of village colonies. The inhabitants studied one or more Vedas, the six aṅgas, and performed Vedic sacrifices. Their profession was guiding people in dharma or law.
The Agrahāram are known by various names: -
Agaram
Grāmam
Maṅgalam
Catur-vedi-maṅgalam
Brahmadāyam
Brahmadesa
Puram
Kuḍi
Ūr
Pārppanaccēri
Samudram
and so on
The term Brāhmaṇa stood for “Vedic Brāhmaṇas”, meaning those who are interested in pursuing the path of Brahmam and enquiring into the nature of Supreme truth. They are the “Vedāntins”.
The Brāhmaṇas are broadly divided into three major categories: “Smārtha Brāhmaṇa” (Vedic Brāhmaṇas), “Śiva Brāhmaṇa” (worshipping Śiva in the temple), and “Viṣṇu Brāhmaṇa” (worshipping Viṣṇu in temples; they are called Nambudris and Pothis in Kerala). Śiva Brāhmaṇas are also called “Gurukkaḷ” as they were the priests of the village and also of the kings. Viṣṇu Brāhmaṇas are called “Aiyyaṅgār” or “Bhaṭṭas” as they were exponents of Śāstras. All Brāhmaṇas trace their genealogy to one or other Vedic Ṛṣis like Ātreya Kauśika, Kacipa, Bhāradvāja, Gautama, Parāsara, or others. They also follow a code of life given by Sūtrakāras such as:
Āpastamba
Bodhāyana
Āsvalāyana
Drāhyāyayana
Hiraṇyakesī
Marīchi and others
Kumbhakōṇam Agrahāram
Pl.20.1. A view of the Veppattūr Agrahāram near Kumbhakōṇam. This street and village continues to be a Brahmin Village for the past two thousand years from the Saṅgam age (Photo by RN).
22.2. Kodunthirappalli: A Village in Kerala (Pālakkāḍu Agrahāram)
22.2.1. Introduction
Kodunthirappali (Pālakkāḍu) in Kerala is a fascinating village, the existence of which is traced to 800 years back, with a long row of houses with uniform facades and remarkably tiled architectural roofing which at once instill the admiration of the visitor. It is a surviving model of an ancient village layout (grāma-vinyāsa) that deserves to be protected as a Heritage village by the Unesco, for many of its ancient traits. Almost all the houses follow the same ground plan with the street running east-west and are aligned in a remarkably same type of façade providing an exciting straight line, without any awkward projections.
22.2.2. Residential plan
One enters a house through an entrance facing either north or south. All houses are equipped with a tiṇṇai, a place for the inhabitants to sit, relax, and observe any street events. I noticed one house, presumably belonging to a wealthy family, furnished with a valabhi. This feature, wooden railings of a slanting type, is common in North Indian temples and ancient Karnātaka, but not in Tamiḻnāḍu.
The entrance leads to a central hall through a passage called a reḻi, and a side room. At one end of the hall, a wooden staircase leads to the first floor, which is usually a long rectangular hall. This hall, the same width as the house, is fronted by windows opening to the street, providing a view of the major part of the street.
The central hall on the ground floor has a yard open to the sky, a “muṟṟam”, that provides plenty of light and fresh air. When it rains, the water falling within the house offers an exhilarating cool experience. Following this is another passage leading to the second kattu with rooms and a kitchen. At the back is another open yard with a well, providing fresh water and facilities for washing vessels, clothes, and so on.
At the end is a koṭṭkkai used as a cow shed and for storing fodder for the cows. All the structures are built of burnt bricks either laid on clay or lime mortar, and the wall surface is finished with a fine lime coat and whitewashed. Timber is used for all superstructures, pillars, and roofs, with the roof covered with burnt tiles. The first floor is built of timber rafters overlaid with burnt bricks, joined sideways on lime mortar, and flooring finished with fine lime.
Windows are strategically placed to provide cool air, creating an effect similar to air-conditioned rooms. The backyard has a long yard for growing vegetables or flowers and fruit-bearing trees and creepers. The backyard is an integral part of the architecture and is attached to every house. All the houses share one common sidewall, with no gap or open space between one house and the other.
Thus, structurally, it is a community layout, and one has to live with neighbours as a group. This uniform ground plan with fresh air, light, security, compactness, and self-sufficiency in flowers and vegetables was a result of experienced planning. Such strict rules to maintain the beauty of facades are now the common formula in modern layouts of colonies in advanced countries. These countries impose very strict restrictions on the maintenance of front yards, facades, and interiors, and no alterations are allowed without permission.
This community civic planning was the law two thousand years ago in rural planning in India, observed more in breach than in rational enforcement in modern times. The result of freedom is to break every civic sensibility in the name of modernity by one who does not know what?
22.2.3. The Layout of Streets
This description is a common factor for all the houses, evidently shows that the entire street consisting of over 120 houses forms a single homogeneous architectural layout, controlled by a strict code of house planning and enforcement. Evidently, such lay outs suggest a Royal foundation, gifted to Brāhmaṇas in ancient times, where some rules are mentioned for provision of stories, tiled roofing, the measurements of length and breadth of built-up house and also its yards.
Pl.20.2.3. A view of the Kodunthirappalli Agrahāram (Photo by RN).
22.2.4. Mahādānas
Going beyond the houses, the layout invariably houses a temple in the centre of the street, at one end, and this is usually a temple of Viṣṇu. In ancient times, many such streets used to be laid out and were named after twelve names of Viṣṇu, like Keśava, Nārāyaṇa, Mādhava, Govinda, Viṣṇu, Madhusūdana, Trivikrama, Vāmana, Śrīdhara, Hṛṣikesa, Padmanābha, and Damodara.
Many Cōḻa settlements bear such street names recorded in inscriptions. The streets were named as “cērī” like Keśavac-cērī, Nārāyaṇac-cērī, and so on. In some royal colonies, established for the Brāhmaṇas, there were also names of the titles of the kings and queens like Rājarājac-cērī, Rājēndra-chōḻac-cērī, Tribhuvana-mādevic-cērī, and so on.
Where there were a number of such streets, a common Sabhā maṇḍapa was built in the centre for transacting all the secular transactions of the village. The centre of the village is called in inscriptions “Brahma-sthāna,” the word being employed to show it is only the central point of the village and not in the sense of Brahmā, the creator.
Such Brāhmin streets with houses were gifted by the kings when they performed Mahādānas, or specific Bhū-dānas and were generally referred to as Agrahāram, (Agra i.e., front, hāra means street). They were also called Caturi-vedi-maṅgalam, Brahmadēyam, or simply Maṅgalams.
22.2.5. Kodunthirappalli Agrahāram
This village under discussion is now called Kodunthirappalli. The meaning of this word is not known. It consists of a very long street of more than 120 houses and another adjacent street consisting of about 32 houses. It is evident that this long street was the original street, and the second was perhaps built in the second phase. The long street is called Kodunthirappalli, and the smaller one is called Ādikēśavapuram.
At one end of the long street is a temple dedicated to Dharma Śāsta (Aiyappan/Ayyanār), which is a small temple with tiled roofing. The sanctum carries three small pillar-like stones planted, which are called Śāsta with Pūrṇa and Puṣkala. There is no sculptural portrayal on the stones. According to local tradition, the Śāsta came on a horse at the request of a Brāhmaṇa.
A remarkable feature about this deity is that after 10 am in the morning, the same stone pillar-like idol is worshipped as Śrī Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa, and Sīta. It is a strange combination of Śāsta and Śrī Rāma worshipped in the same central images. It is also interesting to note that there is a sculpture of Hanuman inside the garbha-graha, which receives adoration daily.
It is important to note that there is a tradition of reciting the Sundara Kāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa daily in the mornings in this village as a form of prayer. Many Brāhmaṇas arrange for this recitation through the village teacher/priest, who is a Vedic scholar. The temple also has a modest bali-pīṭha and a dhvaja-sthambha. The streets continue at the back of the temple as well.
22.2.6. Ādikēśavapuram
The small street adjacent is called Ādikēśavapuram and also has a temple of Viṣṇu called Ādikēśava perumāḷ with his consorts, Śrīdevi and Bhūdevi. This temple is at one end of the street but in its center. This temple is more vibrant today as it has a tiled temple complex receiving great worship. The lord is considered the presiding deity of the village.
It is in front of this temple that the Mahānavami festival is celebrated with a great congregation. The temples both in the long street and the small street are managed by an annually elected assembly of the residential Brāhmaṇas of the village, which is called Brahmasvam-sabhā. This Assembly recalls hundreds of Sabhā of Brāhminical Assemblies mentioned as Sabha in Pallava and Cōḻa inscriptions. We may call them the ancient Vedic assemblies that controlled the communal life of the inhabitants in action even to this day.
22.2.7. All Inhabitants are Sāmavedins
This village is unique in the sense all the inhabitants are followers of one Veda, namely Sāma Veda called the Talavakāra-sāma and are the followers of JaimnīyaSūtra. They mention that there was another branch of the Sāma veda, the Sahaśraśākha but that śākhā has disappeared. It is remarkable that all the families are Sāma vedins of the Talavakāra school, almost not known in any other place. They belonged to one of the four gotras, Visvāmitra, Vasiṣtha, Bhārgava or Hārita gotras.
22.2.8. Smārtha Vaiṣṇavas
The Brāhmins of this village have preserved some traditions that need understanding. They call themselves Smārtha Brāhmaṇas following the smṛtis and worship all gods alike. The village Upādhyāya (Vādyār), who is a much-respected Sāmavedins, told us that he regularly performs Pañcāyatana-pūjā consisting of Āditya, Ambikā, Viṣṇu, Gaṇanātha (Ganapati), and Maheśvara. He showed me the small Liṅga made of metal he worships daily. He also showed us a Saligrāma (fossilized stone from Nepal) which is worshipped as Narayaṇa.
He also told us they observe all the vratas like Sivarātri, Gokulāṣṭhami, etc., without distinction. They also adore Śāsta, whose temple we have mentioned earlier, and celebrate what they call Śāsta preethi. And yet, they call themselves Vaiṣṇavas, meaning they give pre-eminence to Viṣṇu in their worship. They wear gopi chandana vertically on their forehead and, in a sense, they are connected with the Lord Śriraṅganātha of Śrīraṅgam. They consider that their village Viṣṇu is an amsam of Śriraṅganātha.
According to their tradition, they migrated to this place from the village Anbil near Śrīraṅgam in the year 1234 CE. They have not been able to tell me how they arrived at this precise date, but some learned men of recent times seem to have assigned this date. We shall see in the sequence about this date as their tradition may have some authenticity.
22.2.9. Connected to Śrīraṅgam
They also mention that they were originally attached to the Śrīraṅganātha temple as srotriyas meaning they were reciters of Sāmaveda in Śrīraṅgam temple. To my specific question whether they are the followers of Śrī Rāmanuja, the Visiṣṭhadvaita exponent, they stoutly denied any connection or adoption of Rāmanuja’s teachings. The date of their migration given by them goes well for I have shown earlier that Rāmānūja-darśana has not taken deep root in Śrīraṅgam at that point in time. They are an example of Vaiṣṇava Vedic scholars attached to Śrīraṅgam temple, but not followers of Rāmānuja. (R. Nagaswamy, “Chapter 7: Rāmānūja’s Reform on Śrīraṅgam Kottu”, Rāmānuja, Myth and Reality, Tamil Arts Academy, 2008).
22.2.10. Cēra Ravivarman Kulaśekhara
The Cēra ruler Ravivarman Kulaśekhara, who ruled in the latter half of the 13th century, controlled the area around Śrīraṅgam in Tamiḻnāḍu with the assistance of a Pāṇḍya, Sundara Pāṇḍya. Ravivarman was a great devotee of Raṅganātha and made many significant gifts, among which one relates to an Agrahāram to 32 Vedic Brāhmaṇas who were called Bhaṭṭas, exponents of śāstras.
Sundara Pāṇḍya, who later became an independent ruler, established another Agrahāram named “Kodaṇḍarāma-caturvedi-maṅgalam” after one of his titles. He settled 208 Brāhmin families of Vedic scholars in Śrīraṅgam to recite Vedas in the Śriraṅganātha temple. Additionally, they had to teach Vedas, expound Śāstras, and purāṇas.
From around the middle of the 13th to the 14th century, a number of such Agrahārams were established as adjuncts to the Śriraṅganātha temple. All of them were Vedic scholars, who were Vedantins and had such names as “Brahmacakravarti” and “Veda Vyāsa.” There was a strong school of Vedic and Sanskrit learning around Śrīraṅgam, and they were all attached to Śriraṅganātha and so were of Vaiṣṇava lineage, though they were themselves Smārta Brāhmaṇas.
The inscriptions in the Śriraṅganātha temple show these Brāhmin streets had a temple of Viṣṇu in the center of them dedicated to Lakṣminārāyaṇa. Śrīraṅgam is in the heart of the Cōḻa Country.
22.2.11. Migrated from Anbil in 1234 CE
We have seen that the Pālakkāḍu Agrahāram, Kodunthirappalli, was colonized according to their tradition around 1234, and the inhabitants came from Anbil village. Anbil is near Śrīraṅgam, and so the Vedic Brāhmaṇas migrated to Kodunthirappalli from the Śrīraṅgam region. That they even to this day hold Śrīraṅganāthar as their kula-deivam is known.
A Lakṣminārāyaṇa (Ādikesava) temple is located in the center of the street at Kodunthirappalli, parallel to the Kodaṇḍarāma-caturvedi-maṅgalam near Śrīraṅgam in the 13th century. The same environment is created where the immigrants settled. The Sannidhi street is called Ādikēśavapuram. It seems to us that the name Kodunthirappalli may itself be a Prākṛtisation of the word Kodaṇḍa-rāma-caturvedi-maṅgalam.
One should not forget the Śāstra in the central street of Kodunthiruppalli is worshipped as Śrī Kodaṇḍarāma, a rare combination of one stone idol being worshipped as both Śasta and Kodaṇḍarāma. I have already shown that the connection between the Cēra and the Śrīraṅgam temple and the Agaram near Śrīraṅgam was established by the Cēra Ravivarman Kulaśekhara. We have also noticed the grāma vinyāsa indicates a royal foundation.
It is not unlikely this Pālakkāḍu Agrahara is the foundation of Ravivarman Kulaśekhara. The settlement of the Samavedic Brāhmaṇas might have taken place then. What is amazing is that all the over one hundred and thirty Vedic Brāhmins belong to Sāmaveda alone, following the Talavakāra school, and their sutra is only the Jaiminiya sūtra. Nothing but a royal foundation could make such a combination.
The tradition maintained by the inhabitants of this village that they came from Cōḻa country, Anbil village, and they are attached to Śrīraṅganātha, and yet they are Vaiṣṇava Smārtha Brāhmaṇas, but not of the Rāmānuja-darśana, gains historical credibility.
22.2.12. Mahānavami Festival
That these Vedic scholars celebrate the Navarātri festival on a grand scale brings great credit to the village. This annual festival turns this village into a land of fantasy with a very large number of musicians, over 30 elephants beautifully caparisoned and marching gracefully with colorful umbrellas and festoons infuse a cycle of annual inspiration to the people to take pride in their heritage. The village has also turned into a center of crafts of Kerala artists camping for three months a year to make ornaments of elephants. Umbrellas, and cowries for which yaks’ tail is imported from Nepal for manufacture. In Kerala, it is customary to provide free food to all festival visitors.
Kodunthirappalli
Pl.20.2.12.a. Beautifully caparisoned elephants marching gracefully.
Kodunthirappalli
Pl.20.2.12.b. A view of the annual Mahānavami festival in Kodunthirappalli Agrahāram (Photo by RN).
22.2.13. An Abode of Vedic and Sanskrit Learning
However, it being essentially a Vedic village, it has produced outstanding exponents in all fields, like Vedanta, Astronomy, Mathematics, Āyurveda, a Strong base of Sanskrit, music, and dance. One striking feature is that the Vedic scholars were dependent in ancient times for the administration of justice and following the age-old tradition. Many outstanding advocates and lawyers were the products of this village. A village that deserves to be seen studied and preserved as a beautiful heritage village is this Pālakkāḍu Agrahāram. The village is a treasure house of ancient Indian life and wisdom that would show Kerala as the land of Ancient Indian traditions that is unique in the history of the world.
I remember with great veneration Pūjya Swāmikaḷ Dayānanda Saraswati who arranged for my visit to this village. He even expressed a desire to visit this village with me. I am also thankful to Śri Kriṣṇan and Mrs. Indu for assisting me in all ways in collecting field data in this fascinating village.
22.3. Tādahaḷḷi near Bangalore: A Meeting Point of Three Cultures
Tādahaḷḷi is a small village near the Modern Bangalore Airport, hardly about 5 kilometers away. It is surrounded by rocky regions yielding good quality white granite stones that have made it now a region full of granite quarries and stone industries exporting stones to foreign countries. As I went to that village of attractive green trees and vegetation through well-laid out roads at places and country roads at other places, I remembered the scenic route from Houston to Austin in the USA. With a population of 2500 people inhabiting this village, the history of this village could be traced to over a thousand years ago when this region was under the rule of the Cōḻa kings of Tamiḻnāḍu. This ancient settlement is brimming to give you a fascinating cultural fusion of the country in days of yore.
The earliest relic found in the village is the temple of seven mother goddesses, known as Saptamātas, now worshipped as Chauḍeśvari. It consists of a group of goddesses: Brāhmi, Māheśvarī, Kaumāri, Vaiṣṇavi, Vārāhi, Indrāni, and Cāmuṇḍa, preceded by Gaṇeśa, all carved on a single stone slab. In addition, there is an image of what the locals call Annapūrṇā and another of Saraswati. According to local tradition, these were consecrated by the Cōḻa Mahārājas of Tamiḻnāḍu.
The images are carved out of coarse stone, and their features are seen feebly but are sufficient enough to indicate they belong to around the 10th century, when this region, including the modern Bangalore Airport region, was under Cōḻa rule. This need not be a surprise, for the rulers of this region, the Gaṅgas like Prithvipati, also served as Commanders under the Cōḻas.
The worship of Seven Mothers gained great currency much earlier under the Chālukyas, who claimed that they were protected by the “Mātṛgaṇa” (mātṛugaṇa parisevitānām) in their royal charters. It is also known that this Bangalore region was under the Pallavas, who crowned the Gaṅga rulers. A group of Saptamātrikas found at Beguru near Bangaluru shows Pallava influence in form and expressions of the 8th-9th century, which are now on display in the State Museum at Bangaluru.
The famous Kolārammā temple dedicated to Saptamātrikas at Kolār near Bangaluru was consecrated by a Commander of the King, Rājēndra Cōḻa, as recorded in the temple inscription. Thus, we find the village at Tādahaḷḷi rose to eminence in the 10th century with the temple of Saptamātā. A few stones with inscriptions lying in the middle of the village might have thrown more history, but the letters on them are worn out.
This temple was a small rectangular structure lying almost half buried which was rebuilt by Śrī S.V. Satyanarayana Ayyer, a resident of this village as a big temple a few years back when he got a new set of Saptamātās installed in front of the Original Mātās. He built a kitchen and a hall to feed around 500 devotees at a time during the annual festival which came to be organized on a grand scale. Mostly Satyanarayana Ayyer’s family and his kith and kin, consisting of about 35 families are living here, but originally about a hundred families of Brāhmins lived but left for Bangalore or other regions gradually. According to the family history, Satyanarayana Ayyer has been living here for several generations and was called a Jodidhār. Jodi was a royal tax collected by Vijayanagar rulers and probably this family served as officials under the Vijayanagara emperors, appointed to collect the Royal taxes under them. However, his family originally belonged to Viriñchipuram, near Vellore in Tamiḻnāḍu a few centuries ago. Evidently, they were Tamiḻ Brāhmins who migrated here around four hundred years ago.
As is well known, the Brāhmaṇas trace their decendance from one or other Vedic a Ṛṣis some of whom like Bhārgava, Hārita, Kāsyapa, and others are well known lived here. There are many less known gotras of Vedic ṛṣis seen among the present-day inhabitants of Tādahaḷḷi; for example, Ambariṣa, Yavana Asvatreya, Vatsa kumāra Naidruva, Vītahavya, Syavana and Sāveda (probably Jātaveda) are the Vedic ṛṣis whose descendants show how deep-rooted the Hindu society has maintained unbroken traditions. The Tamiḻ residents of this place visit once a year Viriñchipuram, for offerings to their kula-deivata. I noticed among these family members, one group who are said to be immigrants from Jagannath’s Puri in Kaliṅga. They have become one with the Tamiḻ Brāhmins through intermarriages.
Besides these Brāhmins, there are people of other castes among whom one group is called Oḍḍeru, evidently immigrants from Odissa. It is also known that Oddas are skilled workers in stone and this area being rocky they have come here several generations earlier and brought with them some Brāhmaṇas for guiding them in their domestic rituals.
It is against this background that one has to see the modern temple of Chauḍeśvari and the form of car of the temple, both of which resemble more Kaliṅga than the South Indian temple in style.
The annual festival called Jātra of the Saptamātās takes place in the month of June for three days. The first day of the festival is dedicated to lighting the “Māviḷakku dīpam” lamps. The inhabitants carry lamps made of rice flour and other grains in procession. Two giant-sized lamps, each weighing over 45 kilos of paste and carried on the heads of two male members, supported by others, mark the beginning of the festival. This procession starts from the middle of the village from the Gaṇeśa temple.
The women in large numbers each carry a small lamp and constitute the main body of the procession. This being the temple of the goddesses, women dominate the whole day’s proceedings. The second and third days’ festivals see the temple car beautifully decorated with colorful flowers. In ancient times, cars used to be drawn by men, but now they use tractors.
A thrilling experience of the village is to see children sit on the temple car while the women and men come along with it. As the car wades through the country road from the middle of the village, one can see the mingling of Indian culture even in remote villages.
The original temple of Saptamātās has lost its shape. According to elders of the village that temple was a small rectangular flat-roofed structure, made of flat stones and remained virtually half buried. It seemed to have resembled some old Brāhmin houses in the village. The Modern Sociologist generally surmises that Brāhmins were a higher caste in the hierarchy, they lived in palatial cut stone buildings, but the Brāhmin houses here give a quite opposite picture.
Most of the Brāhmins lived in this village in primitive types of houses built of simple rough-cut stone pillars, with crude capitals supporting flat stone slabs. The gap between the pillars, and walls, is filled with mud bricks and covered with lime plaster. Even in these crude walls, they seemed to have made some stucco-like images. Till about 15 years back they lived in these houses that look like cave-mens’ dwellings. Abandoned, these houses are happy dwellings of snakes and insects now. But it is those who lived in them who built the new Saptamāta temple and a great hall in it for festivals. Devotion was superior to them than personal discomfort. They have now moved to new houses adjoining their habitations. Snakes continue to be their comrades in living.
As mentioned earlier some Oddas (Orissans) and Brāhmaṇas from the Puri region have migrated here. The newly built Chauḍeśvari temple is neither in South Indian style nor like the one in Puri but leans towards the verticality of northern tradition. So, is the temple car. Though it is not a permanent carved wooden structure it is made up of colourful flowers of exquisite beauty. The totality of the rural environment gives it an enchanting form. Accompanied by the traditional drumming and folk dance it has a charm of its own.
Indian culture is one with enough variations in each region. I am sure that though the lifestyle is gradually changing and the pressure of modernization especially with an International Airport nearby this small village is likely to invite more pilgrims and also men and women in the near future.
22.4. Brāhmin Groups
There are many subgroups among the Brāhmaṇas based on their place of migration, professions, and Vedas: -
Some groups were called by the language like:
Vadamās (northerners)
Vāttimās (probably teachers)
Aṣṭhasahasram (migrants from Eṇṇāyiram village)
Brahadcaraṇas
Chōḻiyās (from the Chōḻa country )
Desasthat’s (from the Mahārāshtras)
Niyogīs
Some are called by their Vedic category:
Telugus
Kannadiks
Keralites
Some are called by their Vedic category:
Ṛgvedins
Yajurvedins
Sāmavedins
There are some variations in their dress especially among married women. Brāhmin colonies are generally located on the riverbanks, near big tanks or near big temples.
Brāhmin Agrahāram were generally gifted by Kings or chieftains as Bhūmidānas when they performed the 16 Mahādānas and are named after the donor, for instance, Rājarāja-caturvedi-maṅgalam. Their layouts are well planned with built-up space in front, ranging from around 800 to 1000 square feet, and around 1800 square feet of backyard with fruit-bearing trees flowering creepers, and other vegetation.
22.5. Tippirājapuram, a Model Aghrahāra
Tippirajāpuram, a village in Kumbakōṇam tāluk, is a model Aghrahāram with two north-south running and two east-west running streets found in this village. The four streets have an imposing layout, most with houses in the same format. They are classified as two “kaṭṭus”, three “kaṭṭus”, and so on. Each house has two levels of kaṭṭu with a sloping roof, a muṟṟam, and an open yard. There is a reḻi with a small tiṇṇai. With a front tiṇṇai in all houses, there are two rooms adjacent to the central hall. On the back side of the hall is the kitchen. In bigger houses, there is a larger room attached to the kitchen, which also has an opening passage to the side. All houses have small niches with doors serving as pūjā almirahs. Behind this kitchen complex is a well, and further behind is a roofed rectangular place where festive cooking could be done.
In the backyard, spanning nearly sixty to ninety feet, various fruit trees like coconut, plantain, mango, jackfruit, and flower gardens are raised. Beyond this runs a rivulet or a canal. Usually, all Brāhmins are expected to keep cows and their sheds in the backyard. The houses are of the attached type where two houses share a common wall on one side. Three sides of the sloping roof open to the central muṟṟam, which provides light, free air, and plenty of water during the rainy season. The cool breeze makes living enjoyable. The architecture is so lovely; the house always remains cool as if fully air-conditioned. The streets are generally 24 to 30 feet in width. The houses have a width of 24, 26, or 30 feet in the front. The entrances are always to the right of the houses. There are some houses with stairs and a room with wooden flooring.
At the front, there is a low flooring projecting from the house called “all nadai". The Brāhmins of Tañjāvūr district freely feed all visitors in their houses.
All agrahārams have a Viṣṇu temple on the western side and a Śiva temple on the northeast. The temple of Viṣṇu in Tippirājapuram is called Veṅkaṭāchalpathy with Śrī and Bhū, where the Brāhmins perform Rādha Kaḷyāṅam and also Sītā Kaḷyāṅam. At Thippirājapuram, the Śiva temple is called Vikramachōḻiśwaram. Kuntalūr, a single agrāhāra visited by Mahaperiyavāḷ, is a Vāttimās grāmam, one of the 18 grāmas.
Viṣṇupuram is a great agrahāram which has about 90 houses on each row. The entire row is very well maintained without much alteration. It has a great layout and is a grāma of the 18 grāmas. Though they claim this forms a part of the group of 18 Vāttima grāma, this village now houses other Brāhminical communities like Vadamās, Brahadcaraṇam, Cōḻiyas, Vīḻīyārs, and Kēśiyars (who are the last group that needs to be studied). It is learned that they are found in large numbers nearby.
22.6. Two Interesting Villages
It is interesting to note that two villages near Madras have retained statistical data for the year 1739 regarding the area of their houses, their backyards, and the mānyam received from the village for their livelihoods. The data were collected from the village accounts and recorded on palm leaves maintained in those days by the revenue authorities. It gives the social and economic status of Vedic Brāhmaṇas, temple priests, cultivators, and other inhabitants of two villages. One is the now-famous pilgrim center, Tiruporūr, and the other is Vadakkupaṭṭu village, both about 30 km away from Chennai. The data available relate to the total area of the village, common lands, house sites of inhabitants, and the payment received by each class of people.
It is seen that both the villages are well laid out and were settled by one authority a few centuries ago, revealing the unitary character of the habitation.
The inhabitants are provided with a uniform area of living space and proceeds, calculated based on their regular shares. For example, most of the inhabitants were provided with three kuḻis house sites (approximately 800 square feet) for houses. The backyard for most also was of that area but varied to a certain extent. Be it a Brāhmaṇa, cultivator, watchman, or other service holder, the area of the house site is the same. There were houses in the name of women as well, indicating women had an independent right to own property.
In Vadakkupaṭṭu village, the cultivators called Veḷḷāḷar, each had on average a residential area double that of others, namely 6 kuḻis house site and six kuḻis of backyards. There was an Agrahāram in the village that consisted of a total of 45 houses, out of which 43 belonged to Viṣṇu Brāhmaṇas and one to Śiva Brāhmaṇas, each had 4 kuḻis of house site and four kuḻis of backyards. The three kuḻis mentioned earlier were for other Brāhmaṇas living in other parts of the village. There was another group of Veḷḷāḷar called “Payirkūttum Veḷḷāḷar”, 8 in number, who had 5 kuḻis of house sites and an equal area of backyards. There were village accountants called Kaṇakkupiḷḷai who were provided with 6 kuḻis for houses and an equal area of backyard. There were 25 Paḷḷis in the village, out of whom 11 were provided with 6 kulis house sites each, and the rest had 3 kuḻis house sites. Their backyards varied but all had more than 3 kuḻis. A single Blacksmith, who had 2 kuḻis house site but about 20 kuḻis of backyard. Similarly, a potter had a long backyard of nearly 20 kuḻis. Obviously, their profession required long yards.
At Tiruporūr, there was a different types of constitution. Tiruporūr being a temple village, there were as many as 9 temples with 6 gurukkaḷs and 46 paṇḍārams (non Brāhmin priests). The village and their population were as below:
Śiva Brāhmaṇa 6
Vaiṣṇava 9
Paṇḍāram (non-Brāhmin temple priests) 46
Cheṭṭikaḷs (Merchants)
Sānār
Vaṉṉiyar
Kammālar
Mudaliyar
Piḷḷaimār
Kaikkolar
Nāvitar
Vaṇṇār
22.7. Komuṭṭicheṭṭiyar
Besides some other village groups, it is interesting to note that Vaiṣṇava Brāhmaṇas were called Ayyar around 1740. This being a temple village, there were 46 maṭhas all managed by Paṇḍārams. These were free-feeding houses for pilgrims. As there were not many hotels then, the maṭhas had fairly large buildings established by different castes, and each caste could go and eat there. Their house sites ranged from 16 kuḻis to 9 kuḻis.
Paḷḷis: 3 to 12 kuḻis of house site
Shepherds: 3 to 7 kuḻis of house site and backyards of 5 kuḻis
Chettis (11 in number): 4 to 5 kuḻis of house site
Kammālars: from 7 kuḻis of house site and backyard 5 kuḻis
Devadāsis (27 in number): most of their holding ranged from 3 kuḻis but one had 9 kuḻis and their backyard ranged from 5 to 10 kuḻis
Vanyar: from 7 kuḻis of house site and backyard 10 kuḻis
Sabaras: 4 to 5 kuḻis house sites and backyard 5 kuḻis each
Vaṇṇam (washermen): 5 to 12 kuḻis of house site and backyard 9 to 15 kuḻis
Potter: 3 to 5 kuḻis of house site and backyards 3 to 5 kuḻis
Talayāri: 20 kuḻis of house site and backyards 20 kulis
Veṭṭiyāṉ:15 kuḻis of house site and backyard 30 kuḻis
There were no restrictions on the basis of castes, and Brāhmins did own house sites on an average of 5 kuḻi. Many other castes had far bigger houses than the Brāhmaṇas. The bigger house site owners were Talaiyāris and Veṭṭiyāṉs who held four times the size of the Brāhmaṇas.
22.8. Tirupōrūr Mānyams
Mānyams are tax-free shares of income from the lands held by those other than the owners, allotted to each service caste of the villages. It is seen from the shares allotted, Brāhmins received 1/2 a share, while the accountant got three shares. The Tattāṉ got 1 share, as per the 1739 record. The Brāhmin priest got 1/2 share, araikkārar got 1/2 share, the accountant and the dancing girl each got 1 share. The Pañcāṅgam (announcer of day, time, and events) got 1/2 share, the Ḍamāram (village drummer who announces news) got 1 share, and the Washerman got 1 share. The village watchman got 6 shares.
Thus, with reference to both residential holdings and land share, the Brāhmin held the bottom line and was getting the same as the sweeper of the street, and half of what was received by a dancing girl and the village drummer. We may keep in mind that this was the situation in 1739 before the administration went to The British East India Company.
We have seen that a thousand years ago in the time of Rājēndra Cōḻa, he gifted many Brahmadēya. Besides Brāhmins, there were other castes as well, who were given shares and they received the same share as Brāhmaṇas and in some cases more than the Brāhmaṇas. Nearly a thousand years later in 1739, we find other servicemen included in the village and that they received the same or even more shares in the gifted land. Evidently, caste made no difference in Tamiḻnāḍu in economic standards.
Thus, the theory propounded by the Dravidian theorists that Brāhmins were responsible for suppressing all non-Brāhmins is a blatant myth. Population-wise and economically, many non-Brāhmins were far superior to Brāhmaṇas. One thing in which the Brāhmins were richer, as mentioned in Rājēndra’s copper plate, they were very rich in knowledge and conduct (“śīla”) but poor in wealth. That remained in this status throughout history. We know from very early times that Brāhmins were not permitted to become a king. To this day, that tradition continues. The interesting point made by the 1739 document is that this document calls the land-owning Veḷḷāḷar - Sukhavāsikaḷ.
22.9. The Triumph of the Vedas
The Vedas is a vague term meaning the poetic expressions of Nature’s powers and appeal to protect the living from Nature’s furies. The former is based on understanding through knowledge “Jñāna”, and the latter is an expectation of a response to rituals through miracles. The latter is dependent on suppressing knowledge or even eliminating knowledge. This means there is a virtual fight between knowledge-oriented systems and ritual-oriented systems.
The essence of the Vedas is called Vedānta, or Veda-siras, the peak of the Vedas ultimately triumphs for it is eternal knowledge, and the other is transitory. The essence of the Vedas is Gāyatrī, critical knowledge, while the four Vedas with poetry, rituals, music dance, and health for the Vedic man living in the midst of woods and riverbanks depending on natural foods.
The Vedic hymns were understood through the six essential Vedāṅgas which form the core of critical inquiry. Moving towards more cultivated regions, with reading population and interacting social life more social regulations were required and their knowledge need to be understood by all harmony, acceptable civilized codes (dharaṇa) or dharma were needed to sustain the society.
The two great epics served the purpose of spreading these codes now called Dharma Śāstras. The Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata have innumerable situations and events illustrating more civilized responses to situations. The epics Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa rose to the status of the Vedas and formed part and parcel of Vedic studies. The heroes of these epics were more perceptible gods than some of the obscure natural powers of the Vedas. Especially women, and children could understand the values through legends.
The Vedic sacrifices were more dominant in the Saṅgam age for the kings sought the Vedic yāgas and yajñas for their success in Tamiḻnāḍu.
To conclude, it would be useful to draw inspiration by remembering the following men of eminence in the recent past who belonged to the families of Tamiḻ Vedic Brāhmins who carried their solid contributions to the world at large in different fields.
Subrahmaṇya - Bharati Poetry
Saint Tyāgaraja - Classical music
Rāmānujam – Mathematics
Sir. C.V. Raman - Noble Prize in Science
Sir. S. Radhakrishnan – Philosophy
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari - Political acumen
Dr.U.V. Swaminatha Ayyer - Tamiḻ Literature
Gopalakrishna Bharati – Drama
Dr. Badrinath – Medicine
Narayanamurthy - I.T.
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri – History
M.S. Swaminathan - Agricultural Science
Srimati Rukmini Devi - Classical dance
Kāñchī Mahāswamikaḷ - Religion
and there are many more.
They lived a simple life but carried the culture and fame of the Tamiḻs and placed them on the highest pedestal of the world. We salute this tradition. However, it is incorrect to imagine that they alone have contributed to this richness. Every section of the Tamiḻ society has produced men of greatness. A historical study should be our aim to bring the genius of each section based on evidence to understand the totality of over 2000 years of our past.
