The present controversy about Sanskrit has brought to focus some basic misunderstandings about the place of Sanskrit in Indian culture. One report stated that the CBSE circular, which directed the schools to celebrate Sanskrit week, claimed Sanskrit as the mother of all Indian languages.
This is patently a wrong claim because the very word Samskrit means a refined language, or more correctly, a poetic language. It is exactly rendered in Tamiḻ as “ceyyuḷ”, and the spoken northern language, generally called “Prākṛt”, is referred to in Tamiḻ as “vaḻakku”.
Sometimes, the spoken Tamiḻ is called “iyar col”, meaning natural language. From the earliest recorded history of the Tamiḻs, four kinds of languages were considered part of Tamiḻ culture, namely, iyar-col (natural language), ticai-col (regional language used in the outer limits of the Tamiḻ land), “tiri-col” (colloquial Tamiḻ), and “vada-col” (northern language). These are prescribed by Tolkāppiyam, the earliest Tamiḻ grammar.
The ancient Tamiḻs were prudent enough to suggest the use of foreign languages as well. From the very beginning of the known history of the Tamiḻs, Sanskrit existed side by side. From the first century CE (AD), when Sanskrit came to be in the midst of the Tamiḻ, an outburst of classical Tamiḻ works like the Saṅgam works came into existence.
Over 2800 poems were written in the first two centuries of CE, which demonstrates in unmistakable terms that Sanskrit remained integrated with Tamiḻ during that period. The succeeding centuries from the fourth to the 9th century witnessed over 20,000 delightful verses full of emotion and devotion by the Śaiva Nāyanmars and Vaiṣṇava Aḻwars, an unparalleled output not seen in any other part of India, with Sanskrit inseparably amalgamated in them.
Noble men like Dharmapuram Swāmikaḷ, Tiruppānantal Swāmikaḷ, and the Tiruvāvadutuṟai Mutt have in recent times pointed out the efficacy of these two languages as inseparable in Tamiḻ ethos. As we need more rationalist scholars to go to different states of India, to tell the achievements of the Tamiḻ, it is necessary to train Tamiḻ scholars in functional Sanskrit so that their work will be effective.
Tamiḻ is such a vibrant language with built-in strength that it can assimilate any other incoming ideas without losing its vitality and individuality.
17.2. Sanskrit Grammar
Sanskrit is the name of the language mainly used for the language of the northern part of India, as refined by that extraordinary world-class grammarian, Pāṇini, in the 6th – 5th century BCE. The earlier language, or what we may call the earliest language of India, is the Vedic language, which existed at least 2500 years before Pāṇini.
Though it had many archaic formats and vocabularies, it already had over 60 percent of the roots of nouns and verbs which were gradually evolving into a simplified structured language. Indian culture in different regions of India and adjacent regions were coming closer together due to increased transport and other reasons. The extraordinary explosion of the knowledge system was taking place in different regions of India as a result of the Vedic culture.
The layouts of different Vedic altars for sacrifices, like eagle-shaped altars or wheel or triangular layouts, ushered in the development of mathematical calculations and trigonometry when the science reached its heights. Thus, Gaṇita became a part of Vedic science.
As the Vedic sacrifices were mainly related to solar and lunar occurrences and their close relationship with the planetary positions, the science of astronomy became a part of the Vedic tradition. Also, this was the time when the science of medicine, the Āyurveda, was being formulated on the path of absolute science.
One needs to only go through the ancient texts of Ayurveda to properly appreciate the amazing scientific findings. There are other fields where progress is being made. Different regions with different languages did exist, but there was one limitation. Sanskrit is a grammatically structured poetic language, but the spoken language continued to be Prākṛt.
There is often some confusion between the spoken popular language and the grammatically refined poetic language. A grammatically refined poetic language like Sanskrit was never meant to be a spoken language. Similarly, the grammatically perfect ceyyuḷ in Tamiḻ is not spoken by people and was not intended to be a spoken language.
The colloquial nature of the regional language words, existing in vast space, led to misleading understandings due to distorted or twisted pronunciations. Similarly, spoken words underwent changes over time. There was a need to preserve these scientific benefits for people spread over vast space and time, which could retain the form and meaning unchanged.
Pāṇini, the brilliant thinker, refined the existing language with his grammar with precision, which maintained the structure and meanings throughout India. As a mode of preservation of these ideas was by oral transmission, best preserved by committing to memory in rhythmic poetic forms, all these texts were written in poetic Sanskrit form.
Even Buddhists and Jains, who initially wrote their works in Prākṛt, soon found Sanskrit better suited for their works and from the beginning of the current era adopted Sanskrit for the past 2000 years. This movement was not limited to only a few subjects, but in all fields of human activities like architecture, sculpture, painting, jewelry, music, dance, religion philosophy, administration, economics, etc., Sanskrit was used.
It is absolutely unscientific to say that it was the language of one section of the society. Seventy percent of the population, like doctors, musicians, dancers, craftsmen, and others, used Sanskrit in their birth rites, death ceremonies, and other domestic rituals. Excellent Sanskrit texts, describing temple buildings, etc., by Jaina munis are available such as the Pratiṣṭha tilaka. Hundreds of Sanskrit texts by Buddhists are known.
17.3. Upaniṣadic Literature
Another important field of everlasting value of Sanskrit was the great upaniṣadic literature, which universalized all human thoughts through Ātma-vidyā. Some of the greatest thinkers of recent times, like Vivekananda, Mahariṣi Aurobindo Ghose, Ravindranath Tagore, S. Radhakriṣṇan, Subrahmaṇya Bharati Mahā Swāmigaḷ, and Pujyaśrī Dayānanda Saraswati Swāmigaḷ, among others, have shown the value of these works to world culture.
Not only the Oriental scholars, but also great Occidental scholars like Sir William Jones, Max Mueller, E. Holmes, and a galaxy of others have repeatedly pointed out the value of Upaniṣadic texts. The singular message of the Upaniṣads was “self-denial”: Tyāga and Ahimsa. One should not forget that the Great Gandhi Mahatma, the father of the nation, was the creation of this tradition.
It is precisely the reason why this culture spread to the whole of Asia, including countries like China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, and others. Wherever it went with Buddhism, it was always an integrated culture with all the Hindu Gods like Vināyaka, Kumāra, Śiva, Viṣṇu, Durgā, and others, along with Buddha.
E. Holmes wrote in his introduction to Indian philosophy by Radhakriṣṇan that Buddha’s mission in life was to propagate the Upaniṣadic ideology and its discipline, which was unfortunately distorted by some half-baked writers.
Wherever it went, the Upaniṣads inspired the regional languages to flower into amazing heights. Everywhere, Sanskrit was used along with the language of the respective country.
17.4. Bilingual Orders in Tamiḻnāḍu
The language of administration was bilingual in Tamil, indisputably in the Pallava, Cōḻa, and Pāṇḍya regions. The first part was in Sanskrit, which generally was brief, while the second part was in Tamil, which was more detailed. The Sanskrit part was generally devoted to providing the genealogy of the kings and, in two or three sentences, gave the gift detail. However, the Tamil part would detail the date, the revenue division, and the boundaries of the land transactions, the extent of land, and the nature of irrigation. It would also detail the ownership, the taxation, the quantum of yield, the royal dues, the village local dues, and the officials supervising the execution of the duties. These are accurately written legal documents that are designed for the scrutiny of the judicial process. There are several thousand such records with the Sanskrit part at the village level, but they seem to have preserved legal terminology in Sanskrit as available in Dharma Śāstra. The same terms were used, and their Tamil renderings were also freely employed. Spiritually, they may sound as in the Manipravāḷa language, which is a mixed language. There are many royal orders in two languages, not only in copper plate records but also in stone records.
Some records which were issued in borders of two ruling monarchs, were created in both languages almost like verbatim translations from Sanskrit to Tamiḻ furnishing exact equivalents of Sanskrit words in Tamiḻ, an excellent practice of getting over conflict of linguistic bias.
We have an excellent example of such a record coming from Kīraṉūr in Naṉṉilam talk of Tañjāvūr district. This was a direct order of Rājarāja the Great in his 7th regnal year, 992 C.E. Both the parts are exact translations and are in the administrative language, almost word-to-word translation of the administrative order.
स्वस्ति स्री राजराज केसरिवर्म्मन् सम्वत् सप्तमे श्रीमन्नाग्रहार जनपद कीराग्रहारग्रामे श्रीमन् शिवपुरे शम्भुदेवस्य कार्यकर्त्रा शकरदेवनामाख्य अरुमोऴिपल्लवराज विजञ्यापनेन |श्री राजराजन्यनाम राजेन्द्रसिम्ह राजराजानुग्रह प्रसाद महानियोगेन लब्धालब्ध मुख्य विशेष सुनिश्चित प्रमाण श्रीमुखाञया देवकार्यनिरीण श्रीमाठापत्य कर्तव्य आदित्यसूनुना विमलशिव नामाख्य अष्ठा चत्वारिम्सत् सहश्र भट्ठाराख्य आर्य पण्डितेन अत्र शिवपुरेशम््भुदेवस्य कार्य सकल आराधनार्थम् पृथ्वी निबनधविधान कृत सर्व्व शासनम् वक्ष्ये.svasti srī rājarāja kesarivarmman samvat saptame śrīmannāgrahāra janapada kīrāgrahāragrāme śrīman śivapure śambhudevasya kāryakartrā śakaradevanāmākhya arumoऴ्ipallavarāja vijañyāpanena |śrī rājarājanyanāma rājendrasimha rājarājānugraha prasāda mahāniyogena labdhālabdha mukhya viśeṣa suniścita pramāṇa śrīmukhāñayā devakāryanirīṇa śrīmāṭhāpatya kartavya ādityasūnunā vimalaśiva nāmākhya aṣṭhā catvārimsat sahaśra bhaṭṭhārākhya ārya paṇḍitena atra śivapureśam्bhudevasya kārya sakala ārādhanārtham pṛthvī nibanadhavidhāna kṛta sarvva śāsanam vakṣye.கோவிஜய ஶ்ரீ ராஜராஜகேசரிவர்மர்க்கு யாண்டு எவது திருவழுந்தூர் நாட்டுக் கீரனூர் சிவபுரம் உடைய மஹாதேவர்காச்யபனு….. நாரணன்.. (சங்கர) தேவனான அருமொழிப் பல்லரையன் விண்ணப்பத்தால் பெற்று மடமுடைய ஆதித்தன் நிமலശിவனான நாற்பத் தெண்ணாயிர படாரன் உள்ளிட்ட தேவகன்மிகள் உள்ளிருந்து §ர்வ ராஜாக்கள் வரியில் உள்ளூர்கள் இறையிலி தேவ தானம் நிலம் பன்னிரு வேலியும் இத்தெவர்க்கு முன்னுள்ள நிபந்தங்களுக்கு चन्द्रादित्यवत् निबन्धम् செய்த பரிசாவது.kōvijaya śrī rājarājakēcarivarmarkku yāṇṭu evatu tiruvaḻuntūr nāṭṭuk kīraṉūr civapuram uṭaiya mahātēvarkācyapaṉu….. Nāraṇaṉ.. (Caṅkara) tēvaṉāṉa arumoḻip pallaraiyaṉ viṇṇappattāl peṟṟu maṭamuṭaiya ātittaṉ nimalaśivaṉāṉa nāṟpat teṇṇāyira paṭāraṉ uḷḷiṭṭa tēvakaṉmikaḷ uḷḷiruntu§rva rājākkaḷ variyil uḷḷūrkaḷ iṟaiyili tēva tāṉam nilam paṉṉiru vēliyum ittevarkku muṉṉuḷḷa nipantaṅkaḷukku candrādityavat nibandham ceyta paricāvatu.
17.5. Mānaviranpaṭṭi Record of Pāṇḍya Varaguṇa
In the Pāṇḍya region, Varaguṇa II, who ruled in the latter half of the 9th century, made several gifts to temples. These were entrusted to local Assemblies with the stipulation that they should regularly pay the temples a prescribed quantity of paddy and other requirements for daily offerings to the Subrahmanya of Tiruccendūr. They were also to double the quantity on three festive days, namely thiruvādirai in the month of Mārkaḻi, Makha-sukla day in the month of Māsi, and Visākha day in the month of Vaikāsi.
For this purpose, King Varaguṇa, who also had the title Māraṉ cadaiyaṉ, presented the funds to his commander. The commander then divided the money and entrusted it to a number of village Assemblies. These assemblies were directed to pay a prescribed quantity of paddy and cash to the temple in lieu of interest.
Among the villages, 12 were Brahmadēya assemblies, three were Ūrs, and one was a Nagara (merchant guild). Three of the Ūrs were peasant villages, and the rest were Brāhmin colonies. It can be seen that the money was distributed among Ūr, Nagaram, and Sabhās.
The Brāhmin assemblies, which existed before the 9th century in that region, were called Maṅgalam. Some were also called by their natural names like Kuricchi, but not as Catur-vedi-maṅgalam. At least one name, “Kaduṅkō-maṅgalam,” might date back to the 6th century, as the well-attested historical Pāṇḍya was Kaduṅkōṉ, whose name this assembly bears.
This epigraph illustrates that the Brāhmin colonies were not the only recipients of gifts and exemptions. They also served virtually as dependable banks in ancient times, receiving endowment trusts to pay regular interest to the temple as an institution.
The following Brāhmin settlements near Tiruccendūr are recorded:
Varaguṇa-maṅgalam, Brahmadēyam
Triyambaka-maṅgalam, Devatāna Brahmadēyam
Ranavāli-maṅgalam
Gengai-maṅgalam
Kattārai-maṅgalam, Brahmadēyam
Māra-maṅgalam, Brahmadēyam
...nallūr sabhā, Brahmadēyam
Avanīpasekhara-maṅgalam Brahmadēyam
Pulīdsi-sabhā Brahmadēyam
Kīraṉūr-sabhā. Brahmadēyam
Ṣadaṅgik-kurucci-sabhā Brahmadēyam
Kaduṅkō-maṅgalam Brahmadēyam
Kolkka - Ūr
Nallūr - Ūr
Sāstra - Ūr
Mānavirappaṭṭi Nagaram
17.6. Music and Dance Under Tamiḻ Kings
17.6.1. Cēras
The Cilappatikāram stands as one of the greatest epics composed during the beginning of the Common Era. In Chapter 4, we delved into the rich cultural aspects of the Tamiḻs during that period. In my opinion, the entire Nāṭaka Kāppiyam was crafted to extol the greatness of Cēraṉ Seṅguṭṭuvaṉ, who happened to be the brother of Iḷangō.
The introductory poem, known as the Patikam in Cilappatikāram (popularly referred to as Silambu), commences with the phrase “Kuṇavāyil,” which designates the eastern entrance. The poet appears to imply that the reader or viewer will embark on the narrative journey from the eastern region (the land of the Cōḻas) and eventually arrive in the west, specifically the Chera country. East is also the auscipicious direction to begin with. It is customary for poets to begin their compositions with an auscpicious word like ulakam - the world, like in the text Tiru-murugātṟṟu-paṭai, Kambaṉ’s Rāmāyaṇa and the Periya-purāṇam to mention three great works.
Though the term “canto” is not explicitly mentioned in the Patikam, it is implied at the outset of this compilation. The text is closely associated with the three crowned Kings: the Cēra, Cōḻa, and Pāṇḍya. In the first canto, we encounter praise for Karikāla Cōḻa, his prowess, and his conquests. However, his role within the text remains relatively minor. In the Madurai canto, it is the Pāṇḍya ruler who bears responsibility for the wrongful judgment that led to Kovalaṉ’s murder, resulting in the deaths of both King and the queen, and the subsequent destruction of the city of Madurai. This pivotal event serves as the crux of the narrative. In the third canto, the Cēra king erects a temple in honor of Kaṇṇaki and organizes worship, thus playing a significant role in the story. Overall, the composition follows the tradition of dance dramas, where ruling monarchs take on important roles, akin to works like the Śākuntalam (featuring Dhuṣyantan) and Vikramorvasiyam, as well as numerous early Sanskrit dramas.
17.6.2. Pallavas
17.6.2.1. Mahendravarman
The Pallava Emperor, Mahendra-vikrama-varman, who reigned over the northern part of Tamil Nadu from Kanchipuram to the banks of the Kāverā River in Trichy, during the period from approximately CE 590 to 630, stands out as a unique poet in the realm of Sanskrit literature. His multifaceted personality deserves appreciation, and he undoubtedly ranks among the greatest artist-poets among India’s emperors. His passion for art and poetry emanated from his innate poetic genius, allowing him to perceive and visualize every facet of life from a poetic perspective.
Mahendra was a born kavi, a poet for whom everything unfolded either as a dṛśya kāvya (visual poetry) or as a śravya kāvya (literary poetry). This perspective is evident in his intriguing title, Vicitra-Citta. Here, Citta refers to his mental approach, while the term vi-citra alludes to varied arts. Some scholars interpret Vicitra-Citta as “Curious-minded,” but based on his works, the more fitting interpretation would be “varied arts,” as exemplified by another of his titles: Citra-kāra-puli, signifying “Tiger among artists.”
Mahendra has left several monuments which are dṛśya kāvyas, and many Sanskrit portic works which are śravya kāvya like the Matta-vilāsa-prahasana and Bhagavad-ajjuka, both in Sanskrit. His love of monumental art is revealed by his titles like Citra-kāra-puli, Cettā-kāri and Mahā-cettā-kāri. Mahendra also invented a new rāga called the Saṅkīrna-jāti, which he assumed as one of his titles.
As Mahendra’s titles found in his monuments engraved by himself are indicative of his personality, his significant titles are given below. He assumed several titles which are inscribed in alphabetic order in his monuments. They generally begin with his Paṭṭābhiśekha name or the coronation title, the rest fall in alphabetical order as follows:
Anumāna
Avani-bhājana
Bhrāntaḥ
Cettā-kāri
Citra-kāra-puli
Guṇa-bhāra
Kalahapriyā
Kāmārṇava
Lakṣita
Lalitāṅkura
Mahā-cettā-kāri
Mahendra-vikrama
Matta-vilāsa
Saṅkārīṇa-jāti
Satya-sandhaḥ
Upamāna
His cave at Maṇdagappaṭṭu was named Lakṣitāyatana; and the trichy cave as Lalitāṅkura-pallaveśwara-gṛha. He emphasizes his title Avani-bhājana in his Matta-Vilāsa-Prahasana which he used in the invocatory verse. In the Trichy cave inscription he has used different titles, one for each verse as Guṇa-bhāra, Satya-sandhaḥ, and so on. He named his Trichy cave as Lalitam, i.e., beautiful.
His attachment to sculpture and painting is revealed in his title Citra-kāra-puli. Interestingly his Gaṅgādhara sculpture at Trichy is the earliest monumental sculpture in Tamiḻnāḍu.
Two Sanskrit Satires by Mahendra
It may be advantageous to reflect on his two Sanskrit works Matta-Vilāsa-Prahasana and Bhagavad-ajjuka. Both are farces in Sanskrit with profuse use of Prākṛt, that show the stature of Prākṛt around CE 600 in Tamiḻnāḍu. This requires a separate study. The Matta-Vilāsa-Prahasana clearly after one of his titles, Matta-vilāsa, portrays a Kāpālika and his consort Kapālikā, another drunkard.
Mahendra’s grasp of śleṣa-alaṅkāra, the different philosophical systems, and ridiculing the Kāpālikas, Buddhists, the then existing judiciary, etc. in a lighter vein. That too coming from the pen of an Emperor, the Matta-Vilāsa-Prahasana is a unique drama in the field of Sanskrit dramas. Playing pun on their vocabulary, he ridicules them quite refreshingly. His command over the Tarka-śāstra is revealed throughout the text and as mentioned earlier he assumed the title Anumāna and Upamāna which are significant that are fully reflected in the text. These two satires have been preserved in Kerala where the Cākkiyārs, the traditional dancers, have been enacting these two satires in temples as offerings for the past 1200 years which is an extraordinary survival in the field of world dramatic history.
Mahendra's Mastery of Dance Tradition
The invocatory verse of the drama Matta-Vilāsa-Prahasana is an example that illustrates his mastery of Bharata's Nāñya tradition.
भाषा वेश वपुः क्रिया गुण कृतान् आश्रित्य भेतान् गतम् ।भावावेश वशात् अनेक रसताम् त्रैलोक्य यात्रा मयम् ॥नृत्तम् निश्-प्रतिबद्ध-बोध महिमा यः प्रेक्शकश्च ।स्वयम् स व्याप्त अवनि-भाजनम् दिशतु वो दिव्य कपालि यशः ॥bhāṣā veśa vapuḥ kriyā guṇa kṛtān āśritya bhetān gatam bhāvāveśa vaśāt aneka rasatām trailokya yātrā mayam nṛttam niś-pratibaddha-bodha mahimā yaḥ prekśakaśca svayam sa vyāpta avani-bhājanam diśatu vo divya kapāli yaśaḥ
The Nāṭya-śāstra deals with four types of abhinayas namely āṅgika (bodily abhinaya), vācika (verbal), āhārya (costumes), and guṇa (like sāttvikam). All these are the essential components of dance recitals. Mahendra mentions these four aspects of dance in the very beginning of his invocation as bhāśā (vācika), veśa (āhārya), vapuḥ-kriyā (āṅgika), and guṇas, Bhedān gatam - assuming all variations. He uses these terms in connection with nṛttam dance in which the four abhinayas are used. bhāva-āveśa-vaśāt refers to the Kāpālika Siddhānta in which the Kāpālikas enter into āveśa by dancing to the violent rhythms of instrumental music. They believe that they reach the presence of dancing Śiva. Śiva’s dance is considered trailokya-yātrā-maya journey in the three worlds. The third phrase niś pratibaddha bodha mahimā refers to faultless cognition through inference. The next phrase reminds us of the Śaiva Siddhānta system in which Siva’s consort Pārvatī the personification of his own power, witnesses his dance. Pārvatī is described as the primordial spectator. By this process of dance Śiva becomes the abode of the entire universe which is mentioned in the last line sa vyāpta avani-bhājanam. The Kāpālika Siddhānta holds that Śiva as Dancing Bhairava is the ultimate reality which is revealed in the end of this verse which ends as divyaḥ kapāli, i.e., let the divine Kapāli; yaśaþ diśatu vaḥ give us fame and prosperity.
Mahendra also plays pun on the word Avani-bhājana which was one of his titles. It invokes the blessing of Śiva as Kapālin on Avani-bhājana, that is Mahendra. It also seems to suggest that Mahendra himself played a lead role as an actor in the drama. According to tradition this verse alone used to be interpreted by the Cākkiyār actors of Kerala for seven nights, that indicates the depth of meaning contained in the very first composition of this Great Emperor.
Bhagavad-Ajjuka
Similarly the Bhagavad-ajjuka is another farce where the Yama’s messengers who come to take away the life of a courtesan take the life of another courtesan by mistake.
These two satires of Mahendravarman are unique with no parallels in the history of Sanskrit literature. There are a large number of inscriptions of Mahendra. A detailed study of them is a desideratum. However, from what has been said above it would be clear Mahendra was an extraordinary ruler of great love for Sanskrit, poetry, art, religion and the like. Mahendra is indeed a great poetic emperor India has known.
17.6.2.2. Rājasiṁha
Rājasimha was another great Pallava monarch, an ambious king and was a prolific builder. In his celebrated Kailāsanātha temple he has left us about three hundred titles, ever assumed by any monarch of India. His titles are very valuable in understanding his personality. Of his birth, Rājasimha says that “He took birth from Paramesvara, the destroyer of the city of Raṇarasika just as Guha took birth from Paramesvara”.
He was proud of his race and of his noble birth and hence assumed such titles as pallavādityaḥ, kulatilakaḥ, kuladhvajaḥ, jātigambīraḥ, adhbhutacaritaḥ, kshatracūlamaṇiḥ. He was a prince of great beauty and elegance and was conscious of it when he assumed such title as ekasundaraḥ, nayanamanoharaḥ, parjjanyarūpaḥ, udayacandraḥ, vilāsaḥ, abhirāmaḥ, cāruvilāsaḥ, lalitāvilāsaḥ, sārvabhaumaḥ, and so on. His great love for vaidika mārga, viz. śruti, smṛti and purāṇa is reflected in his titles, as āgamapramāṇaḥ, āgamānusāri, śāstradṛṣṭiḥ, nayānusari, ācāraparaḥ, tatvavedi, and so on. His devotion to Śiva and Saivasiddhanta is unparallelled in the history of South India.
All his inscriptions and the inscriptions of his successors, speak of him as a great Śiva-bhakta. He was Śivacūdāmaṇi and styled himself as īshvarabhaktaḥ, devadevabhaktaḥ, śaṅkarabhaktaḥ, īshānasharaṇaḥ, etc. We could only compare Rājarāja-I as an equal in his devotion to Śiva and who rightly assumed the title of Śivapādaśekhara. Rājasimha himself had the title of Rājarāja. He was the very abode of dharma. He was dharmasetuḥ, dharmakavacaḥ. He was afraid of only unrighteousness adharmabhīruḥ. He had unlimited desires atyantakāmaḥ and his ideals were lofty unnatecchaḥ. His ideals were mostly fulfiled, icchāpūraḥ, pūritecchaḥ, tṛṣṇāpūraḥ, etc.
He had great love for all the fine arts, and was himself a great master of all arts, kalasamudraḥ, ātodhyatumburuḥ, vīṇanāradaḥ. In fact he was the very ocean of all fine arts kalasamudraḥ. Such a king was never moved to anger and once roused he was terrible, tīvrakopaḥ, avandhyakopaḥ; but his angers were always reasonable kāraṇakopaḥ. He was severe in inflicting punishments and upholding justice, agradaṇḍaḥ, caṇḍadaṇḍḥ. He was a great statesman, and was the only Pallava monarch who could maintain friendly relations with his neighbours and give some peace to his subjects, dūradarśī, carucakṣuḥ, abhayarāśi, caṛvarti. He was not at the same time weak. He was a great warrior: raṇajayaḥ, aparājitaḥ, akutobhayaḥ, ugrapratāpaḥ, amitaprabhāvaḥ, etc. He was very fond of his subjects rakṣāmaṇiḥ, āśritavatsalaḥ. The very idea of poverty made him shiver, daridrānukampī, khinnānukampī and hence poured forth gifts and presents dānavarṣaḥ, aviratadāna.
In short he is a true Hindu monarch, in whom we find all the qualities of warrior, statesman, poet and above all a lover of peace as described in our nitisastras. It is no wonder that such a great monarch has left us his temples as monumental structures, unsurpassed in their variety and beauty. The same king Atiraṇacaṇḍa has excavated the Sāluvankuppam cave and left his inscriptions. The verses are fascinating poetry. But strange indeed, the same verses are found in Dharmarājamaṇḍapa, Rāmānujamaṇḍapa and Ganesa ratha! Verse for verse, word for word and syllable for syllable they are identical and yet we have been looking elsewhere for the author.
We will look at one inscription of Rājasimha in connection with music and dance.
The rock cut cave at Sāluvankuppam, called Atiraṇacaṇḍa-pallaveśvara-gṛam, was excavated by Rājasimha himself. It contains some sanskrit verses, inscribed on the northern and southern wall of the cave, extolling the greatness of Rājasimha. The script employed in the northern wall is different from the south and hence it was suggested that the inscription of the southern wall was a later transcript of the north and the author of the inscription of the southern wall was a successor of Rājasimha.
It was only in later times that the suggestion of successive engravers was discarded and rightly noted, that since the inscriptions on the south and north wall are identical verses, they were written by the same king Rājasimha.
Atiraṇacandeśvara Temple Sāḷuvāṉkuppam
Pl.17.6.2.2. Inscription mentioning Bharata, the author of Nāṭya Śāstra (Photo by Mohan Nagaswamy, 2004).
Inscription on the Southern Wall of the Atiranacandesvara Temple Sāḷuvāṉkuppam
(Verses 1 and 2) Just as in a large lake filled with water which is fit for bathing, and covered with various lotus flowers, handsome Samkara (Śiva) abides on the large head-sprinkled with the water of coronation and covered with bright jewels====of the illustrious Atyantakāma, who deprives his enemies of their pride, who is a receptacle of wealth, who possesses the charm of Cupid and who assiduously worships Hara (Śiva).
For the welfare of the earth, he who stands at the head of the lords of the earth, caused to be made this house of Sambu (Śiva), which resembles Kailasa and Mandara.
May Sribhara be victorious for a long time, who bears Bhava (Śiva) in his mind which is filled with devotion, and bears the earth on his arm like a coquettish embellishment!
Atiraṇacaṇḍa, the lord of the rulers of the earth, made this (temple called) Atiranacandesvara. May Pasupati (Śiva), attended by the mountain-daughter (Parvati) and troop of Guhas, always take delight (in residing here!)
May the eight-formed lord of beings (Śiva) for a long time take up his abode in this temple called Atiranacandesvara which was caused to be built by him, who together with the name of Atiraṇacaṇḍa bears deep devotion to Isana (Śiva), abundant prosperity, the heavy burden of the earth and unequalled liberality, and who is famed by the name of Raṇajaya!
Anugrāśīla (the gentle-minded)
Who will be able to understand the music of Kālakāla, if it were not Vidhātri (Brahman) Bharata, Hari, Narada or Skanda?
Samaradhanamjaya (the conqueror of wealth in battle) Samgrāmadhīra (the firm in war)
यदि न विधाता भरतो यदि न हरिर्न्नारदो न वा स्कन्दःबोद्धुं क इव समर्थस् संगीतं कालकालस्यyadi na vidhātā bharato yadi na harirnnārado na vā skandaḥboddhuṃ ka iva samarthas saṃgītaṃ kālakālasya
The lines 16 and 17 are of great importance in the field of music and dance as for the first time in Indian history, we see the name of Bharata (the author of Nāṭya Śastra) being mentioned in an inscription, that too by a King! Similar to Mahendravarman, his grand father, he was also an expert in śleṣa-alaṅkāra. These two verse not only extol the greatness of Lord Śiva, but also himself as Rājasimha had a title Kālakāla.
17.6.2.3. Nandi Varman III (850 to 875 CE)
Nandivarman III was a great devotee of Śiva. He had many conquests, the most important being at Teḷḷaru. He was called “Nandi, the victor of Teḷḷaru” (Teḷḷāṟeṟinta nantivarmaṉ - தெள்ளாறெறிந்த நந்திவர்மன்). Mayilapūr was under his rule, as was Māmallapuram. He was proud of these two towns and referred to them in many poems about him as Mayilaiyar kōn Nandi and Mailaiyar kōn Nandi.
There is a long poem on him called “Nandi Kalaṁpakam” by an unknown author. It consists of 116 verses in different meters, all knit together as a kadambam or garland and so its name.
His love for Tamiḻ is described in some of these verses as “paiṇtamiḻai āykindra nandi”. So much so, there are some fascinating myths about him.
Evidently, he had this poem composed on himself by the unknown poet. Except for the colophons extolling his devotion to Śiva, all the rest are love poems. They extoll his prowess, victories, and other qualities as if sung by dancing girls in his court. There are as many as 96 prabhanda varieties for dance and Kalaṁpakam is one such composition. Some songs are in the format of Kali and Paripāṭal of the Saṅgam anthologies.
Some famous Kalaṁpakam’s are the Tillailk-kalaṁbakam, Iraṭṭaiar Kalaṁpakam and so on. This particular Kalaṁpakam falls under the court dance poem.
His love for Mylapore is shown at the very beginning of this work where he is extolled as the devotee of Śiva of Mayilai. The poem consists of mainly five parts as described in Bharata’s Nātya Śāstra consisting of pravēśika, ākṣepika, prasādika, antarika, and niṣkrāmika dharus. We will discuss the first stanza of the invocatory verse in this kalaṁbakam which extols the greatness of Lord Śiva (The remaining stanzas are equally captivating).1(5) மண்டலமாய் அம்பரமாய் மாருதமாய் வார்புனலாய்ஒண்சுடராய் ஒளிஎன்றும் ஓருருவம் மூன்றுருவமைவடிவோ வளைவடிவோ மரகதத்தின் திகழ்வடிவோசெவ்வடிவோ பொன்வடிவோ சிவனேநின் திருமேனி(5) maṇṭalamāy amparamāy mārutamāy vārpuṉalāyoṇcuṭarāy oḷi'eṉṟum ōruruvam mūṉṟuruvamaivaṭivō vaḷaivaṭivō marakatattiṉ tikaḻvaṭivōcevvaṭivō poṉvaṭivō civaṉēniṉ tirumēṉi
Here, Lord Śiva is praised as the embodiment of the five elements: maṇdalam (earth), amparam (ākāśa), mārutam (wind), vārpuṉal (cool water), and oṇcuṭar (fire). He appears as effulgent light as one, and as Trinity (Brahma, Rudra, and Viṣṇu). His beautiful body is of different shades representing the Pañca-Brahmam - Tatpuruṣa (golden - poṉvaṭivō), Aghora (black - maivaṭivō), Sadyojāta (white - vaḷaivaṭivō), Vāmadeva (green - marakatattiṉ or red - cevvaṭivō) and Īśāna (crystal - vaḷaivaṭivō).
His deep devotion toward Lord Śiva can be seen in his Vēḷūrpāḷayam copper plate which reads “hara caraṇa sarōja uttamsa ciṉṉaha” which means the King bows down to Hara with his head where the lotus-feet of Hara is placed as a jewel to protect the King and his good deeds.2
17.6.3. Cōḻas
17.6.3.1. Rājarāja I
The first Rājarājā Cōḻa I, the builder of Tañjāvūr Peruṅkoil, ascended the throne in CE 985. The year 1985 marked the end of exactly one thousand years. The Tañjāvūr Rājarājēcuram is a unique symbol that shows that the Tamiḻ people have no equal in all fields of art, architecture, governance, success etc.
The whole world admires the temple built by Rājarājā and the bronze images made during his period. We know from the inscriptions that a play called “Rājarājēcura Nāṭakam” was performed in the Temple of Tañjāvūr during the reign his reign. Unfortunately, this dance drama has not come down to us. However, it should have been a dance to celebrate the fame of Peruṅkoil Paraṉ, focusing on the history of Rājarāja.
However, keeping the same concept in mind, I composed a dance drama titled “Rājarāja-rājarājēśvara-vijayam” and had the great fortune to perform the inaugural performance in the great Bṛhadīśwara temple (Peruvuṭaiyār) in the year 1985, exactly 1000 years later. The history of Rājarāja and the history of the temple are represented in this drama with the help of inscriptions, copper plates, literature of the time and music.
Rājarāja-rājarājēśvara-vijayam
Pl.17.6.3. Dance drama depicting Rājarāja discovering the Tēvāram manuscripts in the Chidambaram temple.
His love for art, music, and dance is unparalleled in the history of India. A very broad-minded personality he patronized both Tamil and Sanskrit traditions in poetry, music, and dance. Rājarāja was meticulous in documenting every aspect of administration and had left thousands of inscriptions all over Tamiḻnāḍu. In the Great temple of Tañjāvūr he had recorded the construction of the temple, the provisions for daily maintenance, rituals, festivals, treasury, jewelry and other aspects. A study of his inscriptions reveals his extraordinary ability in organization.
Rājarāja was affectionately called Śivapadasekara by his people. True to his astounding vision he built this lofty temple as Dakṣiṇamēru, the southern Mēru mountain, and covered this towering main vimana with gold.
The concept of Meru and the dancing Śiva on top of its peak symbolizes the unique philosophy on which the temple is erected. The text followed in this temple is called the Makuṭāgama according to which Naṭarāja as Sabhāpati is the supreme entity of the temple. As if to illustrate this, Rājarāja Cōḻa carved the 108 dance karaṇas on the first floor of the sanctum tower. The Supreme Lord performs His Cosmic Dance and expresses his physical presence as the very temple and more explicitly in the form of the 108 karaṇas, which are sculpted in the Temple wall.
This important concept of Āṅgika Abhinaya is seen in the popular phrase - Āṅgikam Bhuvanam Yasya, meaning, His physical manifestation is this temple floor. The depiction 108 nṛtta karaṇas by Rājarāja Cōḻa on the walls of the upper floor of the sanctum is a reflection of this thought. In addition, Śiva's great linga in the sanctum of the ground floor is the symbol and the empty space in the first floor, above the sanctum represents ākaśa and therefore the 108 karaṇas as detailed by Bharata in his Nāṭya Śāstra is portrayed in the ākaśa - body of the Supreme.
The Upaniṣad says that ākaśa sarīram brahma - the space is the body of Brahman. One should remember that Earth is one of the planets, suspended in outer space, like all other planets. The planets and stars move and revolve in space. Their appearance and disappearance mark a time at regular intervals. This movement and revolving nature are beautiful to look at and all of them move in ākaśa, it is adored as the Supreme, dancing in vast outer space ākaśa.
So, Dance is an inherent part of the divine. Rājarāja Cōḻa not only portrayed these 108 nṛtta karaṇas, he appointed 400 dancing girls to dance in this temple which is mentioned in the longest inscription on this temple. This inscription has been published as inscription no. 66 in the South Indian Inscription, Volume II with an English translation.
This record is an exemplary illustration of Rājarāja Cōḻa’s abiding interest in the art of dance and also the welfare of the dancers. The 400 dancing girls who were already serving in other temples of the Chola country were transferred to the Great temple to do this service. Along with the building of the great temple. he established a colony of residences in four well laid out streets around the temple and allotted personally one house and one veli of cultivable land to each of the dancing girl, that yielded an income of one hundred kalams of paddy annually. The inscription gives the names of each girl her title and the number of the house allotted to her, and also the street name.
These dancing girls were called “taḷic-cēri peṇḍugaḷ” i.e., the women of the temple colony. They were also called “nakkaṉ” a word that seems to be a prākṛt form of the word “naṅgai” in Sanskrit, which has survived as “naṅgaiyar” in Kerala. Rājarāja’s own sister was also called Nakkaṉ Kundavai who was married to Vallavaraiyar Vantiya Dēvar. Rājarāja regulated the qualifications and service conditions of the dancers personally. He has stipulated that each dancer must be fully qualified to perform dance. It is known from ancient dance texts that a dancer must have three basic qualification 1) she must be beautiful 2) she must know music and 3) she must have mastered the art of dance (āṭalum pāṭalum aḻagum onṟi kuṭiya mūnṟil onṟu kuṟai paṭāmal). Rājarāja says that they must be duly qualified (yogyarāy iruppar).
Rājarāja also stipulated that in the event of the appointed girl migrating to another place or died, her descendent who was duly qualified should take to dance service (aṭutha muṟai kaṭavar ik-kāṇi peravum). If the descendent was not duly qualified in dance, she was given an option to select a duly qualified dancer to dance on her behalf and pay herself the emoluments. It is a form of hereditary right combined with due qualification. If for any reason she was not able to appoint a qualified girl, the temple dancers association (assembly) was empowered to select any qualified girl and appoint her and the service will go to the new appointee who will get the residence and land and annual income. Rājarāja’s regulations are brilliant administration, conferring rights to the employee and his family and at the same time. insisting on qualification.
A study of this inscription shows which were the great centres of dance in the Cōḻa country. They also show the titles conferred on them and their speciality in the field of dance. When Rājarāja built the temple, the present Amman shrine (built in 1300 CE) the Nandi Maṇdapam, Gaṇēṣa, and Subramaṇya shrines and the Naṭarāja shrine were not built. There was vast space in front and sides of the prakara, where all the four hundred dancers could dance freely and beautifully.
Besides the dancers, Rājarāja appointed dance masters and over 240 instrumental musicians. The post of dance master was called Naṭṭavam (modern naṭṭuvam). Similarly there were other musicians who received one and a half times the remuneration of dancers and some received three fourths times and so on. Also, it is seen that many musicians were transferred from various divisions of Rājarāja’s army like elephant corps, horse cavalry and soldiers which shows that there were regular musical bands under each army division of Rājarāja (as in modern times).
There were also Tamiḻ singers and Āryam singers (Tamil Musicians and Sanskrit Musicians). Some of them came from Telugu and Kannada Countries (Vadugu). There were also performers of dramas who were called Cākkais (modern Cākkiyārs of Kerala). Cākkiyārs dance was widely prevalent in different parts of Tamiḻnāḍu
The dance masters were conferred the titles “nṛtta mārayaṉ” and “nṛtta pēraiyaṉ”). There were players of vīṇai, udukkai (maddalam), kuḻal (flute) and others. There were seven dance masters (Naṭṭavam), whose names are as follows.
Araiyaṉ Sundara Cōḻaṉ alias Mummaṭicōḻa Nṛtta Mā-rāyaṉ
Kumaraṉ Vaṭavayil alias Mummaṭicōḻa Nṛtta Peraiyaṉ
Vikki Baṭṭalakaṉ
Araiyaṉ Abhimānatuṅgaṉ alias Aruḷmoḻi Nṛtta Peraiyaṉ
Mallaṉ Iraṭṭaiyaṉ
Chitraṉ kecavaṉ
Araiyaṉ Manaceri alias Vakaiyil Nṛtta Peraiyaṉ
Each one of these were paid double the salary as that of a dancing girl. While the dancing girls got one hundred kalam paddy, the dance masters got 200 kalams (two shares) and was called cakkaik-kāṇi (which has survived and is prevalent now only in Kerala). There are far more information in the inscriptions of Rājarāja. The attention of those interested are drawn to South Indian Inscritption Vol.II no.66.
17.6.3.2. Kulottuṅga I
Paraṇi Literature
The term Paraṇi is considered the Sanskrit equivalent of Bharaṇi, a star. Bharaṇi is the natal star of Kāḷi and also that of Yama, the god of death. A commentary of Tolkāppiyam states that it was a tradition to offer kuḻ, i.e., boiled soup and tuṇaṅgai dance to Kāḷi, on the Bharaṇi day. The Kāḷiṅgattupparaṇi mentions that this tradition was in Mahābhārata war. As Kāḷi is the giver of victory in battles, special offering made to her at the victorious battle field came to be called Paraṇi. So the literature having as its main theme a singnal victory over an enemy and described in a dramatic setting with Kāḷi as the maindeity, came t be called Paraṇi.
Kaliṅgattupparaṇi
The 11th and 12th centuries CE, particularly the latter may be considered the best period in the history of classical Tamil literature. Incidentaly the period also witnessed the beginning of great works, directly based on Śākta Cult. Among them the Kāḷiṅgattupparaṇi by Jayamkoṇḍār is not only the first but also the best work extolling the greatness of Kāḷi.
The Kaliṅgattupparaṇi text composed on Kulottuṅga, begins with an invocation to the Kalyāṇasundara form of Śiva. The verse itself is significant and truly reflects the spirit of the Śākta beliefs reflected throughout the poem.3
Kaṭavuḷ Vāḻttu
Pl.17.6.3.2. Umāpati Tuti (உமாபதி துதி)
17.6.3.3. Rājarāja II
The work Takkayāgapparaṇi (Dakṣayāgapparaṇi) by Oṭṭakkūttar is by far the best literary work of the Chola period (12th century CE) which throws valuable light on Śākta customs and beliefs. Since the author was a court poet under three successive Chola rulers, we are sure of its date, and will be in a position to asses the impact of Śākta cult as evolved upto the period.
Oṭṭakkūttan, a gifted poet and proloific writer adorned the court of Vikrama Chola, Kulottuṅga II and Rājarāja II. He has composed a type of poetry called ulā on all the three patrons and these works are now called Mūvar-ulā (i.e., Ulā on three). He has composed two Paraṇis, one on Vikramachola’s conquest of Kaliṅga and the other on the destruction of Dakṣa Yñagnai. The former however has not survived while the later is undoubtedly the best among the poet’s creations. Besides the Ulās and Paraṇis, Oṭṭakkūttan has sung many other poems like the Kulottuṅgan Piḷḷai Tamiḻ (on Kulottuṅga II), Gaṅgeyan Nālayiṟakkovai (four thousand amourous poems on a patron, Gaṅgeya), Arumpai Toḷḷāyiram (Arumpai, nine hundred) and Īṭṭi Eḻupatu (spear seventy), etc.
The dance literature Takkayākaparaṇi praises the Dārāsuram (rājarāja-purathu) temple and praises the greatness of Rājarāja Cōḻa II who constructed this temple. Similar to that in the Tañjāvūr temple, this Rājarajēchuvara drama should have been performed. It is our misfortune that it has disappeared now. Rājarāja II had an Ācārya from Gauda-deśa and was greatly influenced by the Śakta cult which is reflected in the sculptural portrayal of Bhairava in this temple.4
Vairava Kaṭavuḷ Vāḻttu
Pl.17.6.3.3. Mārtāṇḍa Bhairava, Rājarājēcuram, Dārāsuram (Photo by Bharath).
17.7. Endnotes and References
1.
The invocatory poem of the Nandikalaṁbakam is shown below:
(5) மண்டலமாய் அம்பரமாய் மாருதமாய் வார்புனலாய்ஒண்சுடராய் ஒளிஎன்றும் ஓருருவம் மூன்றுருவமைவடிவோ வளைவடிவோ மரகதத்தின் திகழ்வடிவோசெவ்வடிவோ பொன்வடிவோ சிவனேநின் திருமேனி-----------------------------------அருவரையின் அகங்குழைய அனலம்பு தெரிந்தவுணர்பொருமதில்கள் அவைமூன்றும் பொன்றுவித்த புனிதற்கும்குருமணிசேர் அணிமுறுவல் குலக்கங்கை நதிபாயத்திருமுடியைக் கொடுத்தாற்கும் செம்பாகந் திறம்பிற்றே-----------------------------------இலகொளிய மூவிலைவேல் இறைவாநின் இயற்கயிலைக்குலகிரியும் அருமறையும் குளிர்விசும்பும் வறிதாகஅலைகதிர்வேல் படைநந்தி அவனிநா ராயணன்இவ்உலகுடையான் திருமுடியும் உள்ளமுமே உவந்தனையே.-----------------------------------வீசிகையில் கொன்றையும்வெள்ளெருக்கும் விராய்த்தொடுத்தவாசிகையின் ஊடேவெண்மதிக்கொழுந்தைச் சொருகினையே-----------------------------------பாய்புலியின் உரிஅசைத்தபலபுள்ளிப் படிவம்எலாம்ஆயிரவாய்ப் பெருங்கச்சைஅழல்உமிழ அசைத்தனையே-----------------------------------சோர்மதத்த வார்குருதி சோனைநீர் எனத்துளிப்பஏர்மதத்த கரிஉரிவை ஏகாசம் இட்டனையே-----------------------------------செழுமலர் துதைதரு தெரிகணை மதனனதுஎழிலுடல் பொடிபட எரிதரு நுதலினை-----------------------------------அருவரை அடியெழ முடுகிய அவுணனதுஒருபது தலையிற ஒருவிரல் நிறுவினை-----------------------------------திசைநடுங்கத் தோன்றிற்று நீயுண்ட திறல்நஞ்சம்உயிர்நடுங்கத் தோன்றிற்று நீ உதைத்த வெங்கூற்றம்-----------------------------------அனைத்துலகிற் பிறப்பும் நீஅனைத்துலகில் இறப்பும் நீஅனைத்துலகிற் துன்பமும் நீஅனைத்துலகில் இன்பமும் நீவானோர்க்குத் தாதையும் நீவந்தோர்க்குத் தந்தையும் நீஏனோர்க்குத் தலைவனும் நீஎவ்வுயிர்க்கும் இறைவனும் நீ-----------------------------------ஊழிநீ, உலகு நீ உருவுநீ அருவு நீஆழிநீ, அமுதம் நீ அறமுநீ மறமு நீ-----------------------------------ஒருபெருங் கடவுள்நிற் பரவுதும்! எங்கோன்மல்லை வேந்தன் மயிலை காவலன்பல்லவர் தோன்றல் பைந்தார் நந்தி:வடவரை அளவும் தென்பொதி அளவும்விடையுடன் மங்கல விசயமும் நடப்பஒருபெருந் தனிக்குடை நீ ழல்அரசுவீற் றிருக்க அருளுக எனவே2.
South Indian Inscriptions, Volume 2 Tamil Inscriptions Part - V Pallava Copper-Plate Grants No. 98. Velurpalaiyam Plates of Vijaya-Nandivarman (III).
3.Kaliṅgattupparaṇi with text written by Palanivel Pillai, South India Saiva Siddhanta Publication Society, Ltd. - 1965.
4.
U.V. Swaminatha Iyer (Ed.), Takkayāgapparaṇi, Madras, 1945.
