The Camakam, hymns of the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda appearing as the seventh prapāṭaka of the fourth kāṇḍam, refers to five divisions of land, which is of interest. The Camakam passage appears after the Śrī Rudram and addresses Rudra, stating that the reciter possesses several requirements for worshipping him, such as food, health, etc. Among them, it also lists five kinds of lands, which are:
Land of Rocky boulders - “asmā ca me”
Fertile land that lends itself to cultivation - “mṛttikā ca me”
High land - “girayasya ca me”
Mountain, and its surroundings- “parvatās ca me”
Sandy land - “sikatas ca me”
Asmā - Rocky Land
The rocky land is full of boulders, thorny shrubs, and wild trees. This type of land is generally referred to as desert land. The inhabitants of these lands often indulge in highway robbery and cattle lifting. The rocky boulders crack under the unbearable heat of the sun's rays during summer. These lands are identical to what is referred to as pālai, desert lands in Tamil literature. The term pālai is derived from the word pāḻ.
Mṛttika - Cultivable LandMṛttika refers to soil that is most suited for cultivating paddy, vegetables, and other grains, generally consisting of good earth that can be ploughed. In all auspicious functions, it is customary to bring earth from the riverbed or anthills and use it for sowing grains, known as pālikai, which sprout quickly as a symbol of fertility. This rite of bringing fertile earth, called Mṛtsaṅgrahaṇa, is performed in all marriage functions. Thus, Mṛttikā stands for fertile soil or cultivable land. In Tamil literature, it is referred to as Marutam, derived from the word mṛt. The people occupying such lands lead settled lives and are engaged in cultivation. These lands are also referred to as Nāḍu.
Girayaiḥ - High Land
The third type of land mentioned in the Vedas is Girayaḥ, which, according to Monier William’s Sanskrit Dictionary, stands for elevated land (also known as highland). This highland is generally used for grazing cattle by cowherds or shepherds. In Tamiḻ, it is referred to as meittāṉ kāḍuḷ mullai.
Parvatās - Hilly Region
Hill and its slopes are used by hill tribes called Kuṉṟavās who collect honey and hunt animals and birds. The hill and its slopes are called Kuruñci in Tamiḻ Literature.
Sikatā - Sandy Land
Sandy land, generally referred to as neital in Tamil, is typically found along seashores and rivers.
16.1.2. In Tamiḻ Literature
It is important to note that the earliest Tamiḻ grammar refers to five kinds of land divisions: kuruñci, mullai, marutam, neital, and pālai. These divisions are collectively called the Aintiṇaikaḷ. Each division is said to be presided over by a specific Vedic god: Kumāra for kuruñci, Kaṇṇaṉ for mullai, Indra for marutam, Varuṇa for neital, and Durgā for pālai.
According to Tolkāppiyar, the presiding deity of the hill is “Cēyoṉ”, which stands for “Kumaraṉ”. As I have shown earlier, the word “Muruka” is derived from “Mṛgaya”, a Sanskrit word for hunter1. His illustrious mounts, the peacock and elephant, are found in hills. His food consists of tiṇai-māvu, honey, and other hill products.
In the Saṅgam literature, the legend of Kumāra’s birth is detailed in Paripāḍal. This text contains frequent references to Muruga as Cēyoṉ and Kumāra. His name, Subrahmaṇya, is also derived from his associations with Vedic sacrifices. Therefore, it is evident that Kumāraṉ or Cēyoṉ is a Vedic god. A verse in Puranānūru (no 56) refers to four gods as the protectors of the world. They are Rudra Śiva, Muruga, Balarāma, and Kṛṣṇa. Among them Muruga is referred to by the word Cēyōṉ and Murugaṉ.2
Tolkāppiyam refers to the presiding deity of mullai as “Māyoṉ”, a term used to refer to Vāsudeva Kṛṣṇa. He belongs to the Yādavā class, which is a group of cowherds. Kṛṣṇā’s identity with Viṣṇu of the Vedas is well attested by inscriptions assignable to the 2nd century BCE of the Sātavāhanās, found in Maharashtra. Therefore, Māyoṉ is also a Vedic deity.
“Marutam”, mentioned in Tolkāppiyam, is said to be presided over by “Indra”, who killed Vṛttrāsura and brought down rain and rivers to irrigate the lands and make them fertile. Indra is the presiding deity of the cultivable or agricultural lands with settled life. Therefore, Indra became the presiding deity of “marutam”. It is well known that Indra is a Vedic God. Indra’s festival, “indra viḻā”, has been celebrated in Tamiḻnāḍu since the Saṅgam age.
“Varuṇa”, the other Vedic God of both rivers and oceanic waters, is the presiding deity of the sandy land found at both seashores and riverbeds. Varuṇa’s role in the Vedas is well known as a Vedic god.
The desert land, according to Tolkāppiyam, is presided over by “Durgā,” who is also identified with Koṟṟavai repeatedly in Tamiḻ literature. The scorching Sun and cracking boulders with thorny bushes and wild trees show the underlying heat, and it is the power of Agni, the fire, that is called Durgā in the Vedas.
Durgā is a word in the Vedas that indicates the power of guiding men through difficult paths. The inhabitants of the desert land, who lived by highway robbery and stealing cattle from nearby communities (cattle lifting), worshipped Koṟṟavai before their pursuits.
It is interesting to mention that the Śri Rudram of the Vedas refers to the cultivators, hill tribes, hunters, fishermen, and highway robbers, and identifies them with the God Rudra Śiva himself. There is no hierarchy of higher and lower castes among any of them, as all of them are identical to God. This is true not only among human beings but also among all forms of living beings, including animals, birds, reptiles, trees, and plants, which are born and sprout due to the life principle in them. This Yajur Vedic passage is specific on this point and identifies God with the solar energy, the Sūrya. None were considered outsiders of Vedic civilization.
Thus, the fivefold division of the land, the presiding deities of these lands, and the inhabitants of these subdivisions of land were mentioned in the Vedas as part of their culture in the Śatarudrīya and Camakam part of the Kṛṣṇa Yajur Veda.
16.2. Archaeology of Castes
The origin of castes, their role in society, and their evil effects have been hotly debated, represented, and even misrepresented, from very early periods. It would be interesting to see what one important section of the Veda, “Śrī Rudram,” has to say about the existence of castes at that time. This amazing Vedic passage lists over one hundred existing castes, which essentially is an enumeration of what existed in the whole society then. “Śrī Rudram” extols Rudra, who is none other than Sūrya (Sun) in his solar system, as the Primordial God (parama puruṣa) on earth. Its rays, as they emerge on the horizon, dispel the darkness and spur man and other beings into activity. The sun’s rays are called arrows, and the sun is poetically called an archer with a bow. Further, the rays are praised as having two inseparable powers, one the heat, which essentially nourishes all life, but can also destroy when scorching, and the second, the all-pervasive brightness, the former called Rudra and the latter called Viṣṇu. This Vedic passage is essentially an adoration of this dual deity. As vital heat is required in everybody, this deity is said to reside in every living being.
16.2.1. All Castes Are Equal
It is in this context that a major part of the passage goes on to list all the castes of men in society and says that Rudra resides in every one of them, and the poet says, “I salute them”. Every caste, and there are more than one hundred castes, is mentioned individually by name, and the devotee salutes it. It makes no distinction between one caste and the other, no caste is superior to another as all have the same divinity in them. The commentators also emphasize this point. What is important to note is the four-fold system of caste is not referred to at all here in this context.
A careful study of the long comprehensive list of clans or castes shows that the caste names were derived from their environment and vocation. For example, Vanyas living in the woods, Kulālas (potters), Karmāras (artisans) and so on. A fivefold classification of the land is mentioned in a general way as Hilly region (Parvatās), Highlands (Giris), Fertile land (Mṛittika), Sandy lands like the shores and riverbanks (Sikatas), and Rocky land (Asmakas).
This is found in “Camakam” as a supplement to the same passage. The list is very carefully arranged in the passage and grouped according to the professions. Some had leaders who were mentioned separately in addition to their castes. A number of these clan/caste names have come down to this day for the past four thousand years. We are guided by the commentators in understanding the professions of some of them and will examine a few here.
Vanniyar or Vanya were those who lived in woods Vanas, (with pleasant groves, fruit-bearing trees, etc). They are grouped with Kakṣyas - woodcutters who clear shrubs in Vanas (Kāḍu-veṭṭis). Their leader is mentioned as Vanānāmpati, indicating they were the masters or chieftains of woods. There were other hunters in woods who were considered a specialized group like Dhanvins archers, veṭṭis. Their mastery of bow and arrow and skill in clearing bushes might have given them the duty of protecting the people around cultivable lands. Their services must have been also utilized by the rulers as an army in times of war. Some of them were adept at catching birds in the woods with their nets.
Those, who lived in rocky arid lands, called the Araṇyas (later Eyinars) practised highway robbery, and cattle lifting. They too hunted animals and caught birds. Fishermen who caught fish with nets, especially in the sea were the Niṣādas. The tillers and cultivators living in agricultural lands were called “Urvaras”, later “Uḻavars”. Another branch associated with them was “Kalyas”, who was in charge of threshing floors (kalams in Tamiḻ). They were the settled people (food producers), and it was amongst them the rulers lived in Nāḍu as against Kāḍu.
Another group that attracts attention is the hill tribes Giricaras and Kuluncas and their Chiefs. The latter was probably identical with Kuluvas who frequently appeared in Kuravañci dance dramas of later periods. They were saluted in the passage individually. Among the artisans listed were Takṣas (Taccas-carpenters and also Sculptors), Rathakāras who were architects and builders of chariots, Kulālas later Kuyavas - Potters and Karmāras, the later Kammālas who were saluted by the poets as gods.
Others we need to know where the “Dūtas” and “Prahitas”. The former were messengers from one person to another, while the latter was the later day “Paṟaiyas” who were announcers and communicators of all news, especially of importance to the community as a whole by beating drums (Paṟai). They played a very important role in society till recent times when their role was supplanted by the media like Radio, TV, and newspapers. Their caste name is derived from the word “Paṟai” - to tell, (prāha) say, or communicate, which is used in that sense in Malayalam even now. The drum is also “Paṟai” deriving its name from the function of communication. Even today all temple festivals begin with “Bheritādana”, beating the drum, where the drum beater is garlanded and worshipped by the priest. The Vedic passage says the devotee salutes him as God, and we recite it even to this day only not knowing what it says.
The role of archers in ancient times was very vital (and they are mentioned with a number of other groups who supported them with bows and arrows and arrowheads). They were the mainstay of the army, men who protected the inhabitants. There were horse riders, charioteers, and reciters of the Vedas and Vedantins. There were thieves, and robbers roaming around in the night and daytime too, which caused fear in the minds of the people. There is no mention of king though his presence may be inferred. There were merchants “Vanijas” but no mention of the fourfold castes. It appears that the king’s role was limited to affording protection mainly to those in settled areas and protecting the borders and other areas from foreign aggression. Every caste especially in woods, forests, and the roadways and water sources had enjoyed almost full freedom and yet there is no mention of disharmony among them, and none was considered an outsider to the civilization. Each had his place in the society, and none was disrespected.
16.2.2. Nature as Divine
Other data furnished by this Vedic passage call for a greater in-depth study of the early Vedic society for a proper understanding of our misconceptions about the caste system which had its roots in environment and profession. The dawn of new discoveries has broken the barriers of environments and professions. Many castes are shaking off thinking and are struggling to readjust to the new situation and will soon emerge only to face new challenges. The one hope against them is to see the tremendous power present in Nature as the ancient Vedic seers saw in the Sun and its rays, rather than assert mine is the only god who is the bestower of salvation.
16.3. Namah Śavitre
When man was in the early stages of living, he lived very close to the natural environment like hills, rivers, trees, plants, flowers, birds, animals, reptiles, and human beings. The flowers, fruit-bearing trees, birds, flowing rivers, waterfalls, etc., left a lasting impression on him. The most impressive natural phenomenon that he was constantly observing was the rising Sun, its movements, and its setting. Similarly, the moon also attracted him.
He found the Sun to be the most important power that made the plants grow, the birds to announce the arrival of dawn, and visibility that enabled man to start on his day’s work. In short, it propelled him to do daily work. It woke him from his slumber/sleep and stimulated his routines. Thus, he rightly considered the Sun as the visible primordial power.
The rising Sun in the morning is coppery in color, which gradually changes into orange, then to yellow and then white. He was fascinated by its beauty and function. He began to observe it daily and called it Savitā and adored it. So, he prayed, “Thou Savita, you stimulate my intellect so that I shall do greater things”. This prayer addressed to Savitā is called the Gāyatri in the Vedas. In India and wherever Indian culture spread like Thailand, Cambodia, this prayer went and everywhere, most of the people recited the prayer Gāyatri which is the essence of Indian Religion from time immemorial.
ॐ भूर् भुवः स्वः।तत् सवितुर्वरेण्यं।भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि।धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात् ॥oṃ bhūr bhuvaḥ suvaḥtat savitur vareṇyaṃbhargo devasya dhīmahidhiyo yo naḥ pracodayāt– Rigveda 3.62.10
He also realized that in the journey of the Sun, many things are born, grow, and disappear, so he thought there is appearance, growth, and disappearance. He called the Sun by different names like Creator (Brahmā), Protector (Viṣṇu), and Dissolver (Rudra). All are different forms of one Supreme power. All these powers could not be visibly seen, but the Sun could be seen by eyes, and so he called the Sun itself as the supreme God “Pratyakṣa Parameśvara”.
It is the same power who is Viṣṇu, who is Śiva, and who is Brahmā. All the Vedas and Upaniṣads, which are the ancient literature of India, speak of this truth that Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva, and Sūrya are one and the same God.
When the clouds move in the sky, they look like huge elephants. When the Sun appears, it tears open the black clouds like tearing a huge elephant. In this, the Indians saw Śiva appearing as “Gaja-samhāra-mūrti”. When the Sun appears in the sky driving away darkness, it looks like dancing on a huge black figure of darkness. The Indians saw in this Dance of Śiva (udvayam tamasas pari paśyanto jyotir uttamam).
16.4. Govindarājīyam on Ādityahṛdayam
The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmiki has a popular commentary by Govindarāja, who lived in the 17th Century. His comments on the famous “Ādityahṛdayam” in the Rāmāyaṇa are interesting.
In all difficulties and dangerous paths, fear grips everyone without distinction. Sūrya was pleased with the stotra of Śri Rāma, looked at him with happiness, and knowing that the end of the Rākṣasa was near, blessed Rāma. Being in the midst of celestials, he told Rāma, “please hurry towards Rāvaṇa”. Here, it sounds like Sūrya descended from his own orbit, came near Rāma in space, and restored the fruits of prayers.
At this stage, the commentator raises a doubt. Is it not a fact that great texts have declared Viṣṇu alone is supreme among all and that all others like Brahmā, Rudra are born out of Nārāyaṇa? Here, Sūrya is declared the supreme among all! How?
Govindaraja replies “Yes indeed! But Bhagavān Bādarāyaṇa has proved in Brahma-Mīmāṁsā that though Āditya is praised as Supreme, the inner meaning of the Madhu-vidyā is Paramātmā who resides as the inner soul of (Āditya), Antaryamitvena”! In the same way, everything should be taken in this text in the sense of Āditya’s inner self. That Nārāyaṇa is supreme is detailed from the beginning to the very end.
Brahmā, Īśāna, and Acyuta emanated from Paramātmā, so it is appropriate that this chapter is not seen in some manuscripts. It has also not been commented on by Piḍāri. Though from the very beginning, the supremacy of Sūrya is expounded, in fact, it is intended to extol the supremacy of Nārāyaṇa. If this chapter is included in the text, Piḍāri would have counted 131 Sargas in his kāṇḍa. (He has not done so).
The commentary is named Rāmāyaṇa bhūṣaṇa - Ratnakīrti by Govindarāja who wrote it. Though Govindarāja has commented on it, he does not approve of Ādityahṛdayam due to his staunch belief in Vaiṣṇavism.
At the end of the Yuddha-kāṇḍa, Govindarāja says that he belonged to Kauśika gotra, and was the son of Varadaguru (Varadācāri). He was inspired by the affection of Bhāvanācārya and was a great devotee of Saṭagōpaṉ. In the Uttara-kāṇḍa, he says that he was the follower Saṭajit, a Śrivatsa gotrin.
In the Bāla-kāṇḍa, it is stated that Ācārya Saṭagōpaṉ deserted this (Prācārya), and Lakṣmṇas yogi (possibly Rāmānuja), Yāmunācārya, and others as well. This needs further exploration.
We also get some information on another commentator, Maheśvara-tīrtha, whose work is called Tīrthīyam. He seemed to be an Advaitin as he started saluting the goddess as Parabrahma. He salutes Nārāyaṇa-tīrtha-desika, who is said to shine as the very nectar of the worldly five. He calls himself Maheśa-tīrtha-muni, obviously a Sanyasin, and gives the name of his commentary as Rāmayaṇa-tatva-dīpika. He says that he is only a scribe, copying all the works, and not an author of new works. It is not known whether he is identical to Nārāyaṇa Tīrtha, the well-known composer of Kṛṣṇa-līla-taraṅgiṇi (Śrimad Vālmiki Rāmayaṇa, Bālakaṇda, With Commentary of Śri Govindaraja, T. R. Krishnacharya and T. R. Vyasacharya, 1911).
The Rāmayaṇa is said to be the full form of the Gāyatri. This śloka is found at the end of the Uttara-kāṇda.
The Gāyatri consists of 24 akṣaras, and the Rāmāyaṇa consists of 24,000 slokas this is a true extension of the Gāyatri hymn.
Govindarāja gives different names to his commentary in each kāṇḍa.
At the beginning of his commentary on the Bāla-kāṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa, he salutes – Saṭakōpa desika - (Nammāḻvār) who is called Prācārya-pārampari, followed by Śrīmad Lakṣmaṇa yogi and Yāmuna vāstavār Nātha and others.
He says that he had a vision of writing the commentary and a dream, while he was in front of the Hanuman shrine, on top of the Añjanagiri (Tiruppati hill) at the entrance to the temple of Venkaṭanātha, in the midst of learned men who had come from different parts of the country.
“I write this commentary on the Rāmāyaṇa, avoiding repetitive and contradictory comments, and make use of only agreeable and pleasant usages in words. Also, I expound interesting ideas at every step and compile this commentary for the happiness of good people. I have also made use of all other earlier commentaries and write this Śrī Rāmāyaṇa Bhūṣaṇa, the ornament of the Rāmāyaṇa. I visited Śrī Pūrṇa Śaila eighteen times and listened to the traditional exposition of the Rāmāyaṇa from him and expound the same obtained from the ĀcāryaParamparā. In some places, I give the meaning of the words; in some, the syntactical propriety. In some places, I split words appropriately, and at places, I provide the explicit and implicit meanings and also look for references.”
This sums up his attitude to the tradition of commentary. His commentary proposes all these attempts. At the end of Uttara-kāṇḍa, he says, he was deeply learned in the Vedas, Śāstras, and Vāda (debate) with unassailable fame. He was a critical scholar of kāvya alaṅkāra - embellishments, nāṭya and in writing commentaries as well. He was pure in heart and adept in extracting the nectar from the pure lotus. He was a person of Suddha Sattva, of pure life. He wrote this commentary after deep reflection and hearing.
In the beginning of Ayodhya-kāṇḍa he says he was immersed in hearing the words uttered by the sacred mouth of Saṭāri, who was an embodiment of Sama-dharma, and having expounded in the midst of learned men with natural saralah words, I, Govindarāja, the ornament of Kauśika gotra, expound the Sāketa-kāṇḍa for the delight of the people”.
This implies that he heavily relied on the thoughts of Saṭakopaṉ - Nammāḻvār. At the end of the kāṇḍa, he states that by constantly serving the lotus feet of Saṭakopa, all his doubts and ignorance were cleared. He also mentions that, like a lion, he averted the group of all Kāthka elephants. He uses the word kathāka here, referring to the exponents of stories called the kathā-kālakṣepa-kāras, who were quite a group in his time. He refers to them as elephants and considers himself a lion among them. The other meaning is also explicit. Among the communicators of the Rāmāyaṇa and Kāthaka stories, Kāthaka was anterior to Govindarāja in terms of time. Kāthaka’s commentary, Kāthaka-tīka, is referred to by Nagojibhaṭṭa and others. Evidently, his commentary was very popular during Govindarāja's time, who claims to have surpassed Kāthaka with his music. He refers to him as one in a group that can win over any number of Kāthakas through music.
In the Araṇya-kāṇḍa, he expresses reverence again to Saṭakopa, whom he describes as a Śrivatsa gotrin. He refers to the Rāmāyaṇa as a king - Rāja, and thus his commentaries are like ornaments to the king. He has presented a Pitāmbara - silk garment to this king and now presents a beautiful Ratna-mekhalā. At the end of the Araṇya-kāṇḍa, he mentions that there are many variations, with fewer or a greater number of verses in manuscripts. In the end, he pays homage to Saṭakopa again. He also states that he has examined the mountain, the commentary of all other great commentators, and written his own at the end.
In the Sundara-kāṇḍa, he appears to refer to Saṭakopa Guru as if he were still alive. In the end, he states that he belongs to the Kauśika gotrin, while Saṭakopa-desika belongs to the Vatsa gotra.
At the beginning of the Yuddha-kāṇḍa, he salutes Saṭakopa, referred to as Ācārya, and the genealogy of Ācāryas, Nārada, and Kusa-lava. After examining the commentaries of Pūrvācāryas, he writes this kāṇḍa. Here, he states that he is the son of Varadaguru (Varadācāri) and, impelled by the advice of Bhāvanācārya, wrote this expansive commentary on the Yuddha-kāṇḍa.
In the Uttara-kāṇḍa, he states that Ācārya Saṭhajit, who belonged to the Śrivatsa gotra, became a greatly accomplished scholar in all the śāstras by the grace of his teacher and manifested his personality in the commentary. The concluding commentary of Govindarāja is rather flat. He concludes that the Rāmāyaṇa stands for the Gāyatri and states that it is a Vivaraṇa of the Gāyatri.
16.5. Rudra is Sūrya
As we have seen earlier, Rudra and Śiva are identical in the Vedas. I have drawn attention to the dual deity called Agnā-Viṣṇu in the Vedas. The most famous passage in the Taittirīya Samhitā of the Kṛṣṇa Yajur Veda is the Śri Rudram. It is referred to as Rudra - Anuvāka Praśṇa, Śrī Rudra Sūktam, and Śata-Rudrīyam. This part is recited daily by Vedic scholars and is specially taught to all students so that they may recite it daily in their life. It is also used daily in abhiṣeka, daily pūja, and all other festivals and domestic rituals. As it is an excellent meditative portion, there is a preamble to it which is also recited before the Rudram. It reads as follows: -
अस्य श्री रुद्राध्याय प्रश्न महामन्त्रस्य,अघोर ऋषि, अनुष्ठुप् छन्द, संकर्षणमूर्त्ति स्वरूपो योसावादित्यः परमपुरुषःप य येषः रुद्रो देवता।asya śrī rudrādhyāya praśna mahāmantrasya,aghora ṛṣi, anuṣṭhup chanda, saṃkarṣaṇamūrtti svarūpo yosāvādityaḥ paramapuruṣaḥpa ya yeṣaḥ rudro devatā|
This passage at the beginning presents many important concepts about Rudra, which have generally been interpreted over the years as lightning and a terrific manifestation, among other things. However, let us consider what the ancient thinkers themselves believed. They refer to this as a chapter, or adhyāya, and a great mantra hymn, or mahā-mantrah. This is attributed to the sage Aghora and is in the anuṣtup meter. The passage then states that this Rudra is Sūrya - Āditya (asau ādityaḥ), who takes the form of saṁkarṣana-mūrti and is the Supreme Being, or parama puruṣa. This suggests that Rudra is none other than Āditya - Sūrya, who in turn is identical to Saṁkarṣana. All these terms are synonymous.
According to this preamble, Rudra is Sūrya. This concept should be understood with reference to many passages in the same Veda that declare rudro vā eṣa yad agniḥ, meaning Rudra is none other than this Agni. It goes without saying that the most powerful, most benign, and most terrific celestial fire, Agni, is Sūrya. Thus, the ancient Indian seers visualized Sūrya as the primordial God, Parama Puruṣa, and identified Agni with Rudra. The Vedas recognize three fires: Sūrya (Sun), Chandra (Moon), and Agni (terrestrial fire). Among these three, there is no doubt that Sūrya is the foremost and is rightly called Parama Puruṣa.
There is an important Sūkta in the Veda, which is called puruṣa-sūkta that begins as this Supreme being has thousands of heads sahasra sīrṣā puruṣa, a direct reference to innumerable rays of the Sun. Puruṣa-sūkta is also addressed to Sūrya. It is known that Sūrya is called Sūrya Nārāyaṇa.
It is also known that Puruṣa is held identical with Viṣṇu, Nārāyaṇa. Viṣṇu is said to have emanated as four Vyūhas namely Saṁkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna, Aniruddha, and Vāsudeva. According to Vaiṣṇava Āgamas, Saṁkarṣaṇa and Rudra are identical. This concept arises from Viṣṇu is also Agni, the shining and spreading power of Agni as light.
This concept is also first mentioned in the Veda itself as a dual deity Agnā-Viṣṇu in the Rudram. Thus, the preamble of the Śrī Rudram mentions that the Āditya in the form of Saṁkarṣana is Rudra. We therefore find that in Śiva temples Āditya is worshipped daily as Śiva Sūrya and in the Viṣṇu temples, he is worshipped as Sūrya Nārāyaṇa. Thus, the Śrī Rudram holds that Śiva and Viṣṇu are one inseparable entity, and they are identical to Sūrya.
16.6. Sūrya
Āditya, Savitā, Sūryah, Gabhastimān, Mitrah, and one with a thousand eyes, a thousand feet, and a thousand hands are all some of the names used in the Vedas to denote the Sun god. He is also recognized as the primordial visible god of the Universe – Pratyakṣa Parameśvara. All the other gods can be seen only through Knowledge.
He is extolled as the soul of the world - Sūrya Ātmā Jagatah and is the Eye of the Universe, Cakṣuh. Sūrya awakens all living beings from slumber and stimulates them to undertake their work as he rises. As he comes on the horizon, the cowherds see him and the women who bring water also see him, utainam gopās adrisan, adrisan udahāryah. He makes the cultivators plough the fields as mitra kristiḥ.
The learned Brāhmaṇas, with folded hands and reciting the Vedas, welcome him for the prosperity of the world. The birds and animals, rising up, fluttering, and singing, move here and there. He is the one who removes the darkness of ignorance. He rises in the east, traverses the mid sky, and sets in the west, and so he is extolled in the Vedas as the one with three great steps - tridhoru gāyah.
By every one of his constant movements, he creates time as minute, hour, day, night, days, weeks, months, and year (nimeṣa, nādi, sandhi, nātam, divā, tithi, vāra, nakṣatra, yoga, karaṇa, mātās, ritus, and samvatsara) and so is called the creator of Kāla. Through benevolent heat, he creates vegetation and food to grow and sustains all lives on earth, and so is called the creator, and the sustainer of the Universe.
At the end of eons, he dissolves the Universe by his terrific heat. Thus, he is also called Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva, Indra, and other gods.
The most repeated Vedic mantras, the Śata Rudrīyam (Śrī Rudram), Puruṣa Sūktam, Nārāyaṇa Sūktam and others extol him. The most ancient prayer in the world that has been recited for the past several thousand years by millions of people and continues to this day is the Vedic Gāyatrī, which is addressed to Sūrya as God Savitā, to stimulate one’s intellect and obtain critical knowledge, jñāna.
This was the prayer from Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the whole of India, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam, right across a great part of the world. Sūrya is worshipped in all temples, in Śiva temples as Śiva Sūrya and in Viṣṇu temples as Sūrya Nārāyaṇa.
The lotus flowers blossom as he rises, so he is shown in his image with two lotuses in both his arms. He is also shown standing on a chariot drawn by seven horses representing the seven days of the week in most cases. In some cases, with seven svaras: ‘Sa’, ‘Ri’, ‘Ga’, ‘Ma’, ‘Pa’, ‘Da’, ‘Ni’ in music, Sūrya is always shown standing on a lotus.
He is said to circumambulate (pradakṣina) mount mēru on the Himālayas, the coldest region of the earth. He is shown with leather boots on his legs and covering his chest with a golden kavaca in images in the whole of northern India and this is called udichya veṣa, i.e., northern form.
He combines in himself the acts of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva, and also his own manifestation. He is often shown with four heads and eight arms holding the weapons of all four gods. In such aspect, he is called Mārtāṇḍa Bhairava mostly in the northern part of India, the eastern part of India like Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Orissa, and across Aryāvarta, Kashmir west and Mādhyapradesh.
Such images are also found in the Cōḻa country. In Dārāsuram near Kumbakōṇam, he is shown as Mārtāṇḍa Bhairava with four heads and as Ardhanāri.
His worship was so popular throughout India, that monumental temples were built for him in Kashmir (Mārtāṇḍa temple), the sun temple of Konaraka (Orissa), the sun temple at Modhera (Gujarat, Chitragupta temple at Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh) and Suryanār temple in Tamiḻnaḍu and there are so many temples at different places.
Some of the best Mārtāṇḍa images were made in eastern India, like Bengal, eastern Bihar, Assam, Manipur, including modern Bangladesh by the Pālā rulers. One of the most influential aspects of Hindu worship is what is known as Pañchāyatana worship, both as individual worship and temple in which Āditya, Ambikā, Viṣṇu, Gaṇanātha, and Mahēśvara are worshipped. In this form of worship, Āditya is worshipped with the other four deities.
In ancient times, there were Liṅgas worshipped with four images of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva, and Sūrya each on one face as caturmukhas. Such images of Liṅgas were worshipped even in Indonesia in ancient times. The worship of Sūrya as the primordial deity is called the Sauram form.
According to traditions, the Advaita Ācārya Śaṅkara established this form of worship along with the other five forms of worship as the Ṣanmatha sthāpanācārya.
Sūrya worship conferred all-around fulfillment and victory in all undertakings. When Lord Rāma was standing in front of Rāvaṇa on the battlefield, the divine Ṛṣi Sage Agastya appeared before Rāma and advised him to worship Sūrya.
pūjayasva vivasvantam bhāskaram bhuvaneśvaramyena sarvān arīn vatsa samare vijayiṣyasi.
This Stotra, almost appearing as another Gīta, is called Ādityahṛdayam (the heart of Sūrya worship). It is recited daily by thousands of men and women to this day from Kāshmir to Kanyākumari. There is an ancient composition in Sanskrit by a poet named Mayura Kavi, consisting of one hundred verses called Sūrya Śatakam. This was inscribed on stone over one thousand years ago at Kāñchipuram.
The Mahaswāmigaḷ from Kāñchī would often visit the Kacchapeśvara temple to read the still preserved inscription. The practice of worshipping Sūrya is deeply intertwined with Indian faith and worship, to the extent that one cannot discuss Hindu religion without acknowledging Sūrya.
Airāvathēśwarar Temple
Pl.16.6.1. Ardhanāri Sūrya image, Airāvathēśwarar Temple, Dārāsuram near Kumbhakōṇam
(Photo by V. Gopalan)
Airāvathēśwarar Temple
Pl.16.6.2. Mārtāṇḍa Bhairava Airāvathēśwarar Temple, Dārāsuram near Kumbhakōṇam
(Photo by Bharath, Twitter: @brakoo)
16.7. Śata Rudrīyam
16.7.1. Śrī Rudram
The Śata Rudrīyam, popularly known as Śrī Rudram, found in all the Vedas, including the Ṛg Veda, Kṛṣṇa Yajur Veda, and Śukla Yajur Veda, is considered the most important part that has influenced Hindu thoughts and life. It has been used extensively for the past four thousand years in worship, meditation, homa, and recitations. Many commentaries have appeared on this passage through the centuries.
It is found in the fourth kāṇḍam of the Yajur Veda and that too as its central part, hṛdayam. In the center of this passage appears the sacred pañcākṣara, “na-ma-śi-vā-ya”, considered as the real heart of Śaivism. Among the five known commentaries, the ones of Bhaṭṭa Bhāskara, Sāyana, Viṣṇu Sūri, and Śaṅkara are available.
The Śrī Rudram is mentioned several times in the Veda. It is also likened to a Upaniṣad and is called Rudrōpaniṣad. A compilation of all the texts that use this Rudram in domestic and other rituals was published in the last century under the title Śrī Rudra Samhitā.
A novel method of identifying all sculptural representations of Śiva against Rudram was given by Śri C. Sivarāmamurti. Another publication I found useful was that of Śrī Aṇṇā Subrahmanya Aiyer, published by Śrī Rāmakriṣṇa Mutt, the last one being in Tamiḻ. Śrī Annā deserves to be remembered for his signal contribution.
A careful study of the Śrī Rudram shows that it is the forerunner of the Upaniṣads as it deals with the equality of all souls, irrespective of birth, castes, or professions.
16.7.2. Śata Rudrīyam
The Yajur Veda is said to have one hundred branches, Śata Śākhas, and this Śrī Rudram is found in most of the available ones, hence it is called Śata Rudrīyam. According to another tradition, it speaks of hundreds of manifestations of Rudras, hence it is also called Śata Rudrīyam. As it deals with many manifestations of Godhood, it is ideally suited for any section of the people who can recite and achieve their prayers, as stated in the Taittirīya Upaniṣad.
16.7.3. Mode of Recitation
Śrī Rudram is in eleven anuvākās (hymns) and is generally recited along with another passage in the same part called Camakam. It is customary to recite both in five different combinations, and each recitation has its own name.
The normal mode is to recite them once.
The second mode is to recite Rudram eleven times, followed by Camakam eleven times; this mode is called Rudra Ēkādaśinī.
Laghu Ēkādaśinī is the mode of reciting the Rudra Ēkādaśinī eleven times.
Eleven instances of Laghu Ekādasinī constitute one Mahā Rudram, and if Mahā Rudram is recited eleven times, it is called Atirudram.
16.7.4. Namakam and Camakam
The word Namaḥ, i.e., “I salute”, occurs several times for each manifestation in its eleven Anuvākas, and so Rudram itself is called Namakam. In the second part of this recitation, the devotee says, “I have all the qualifications and acquisitions to worship Rudra,” which mentions each separately with the phrase “ca me”, and so it goes by the name “Camakam”.
16.7.5. Rudra is Sūrya and Śiva
The first part of Rudram clearly shows that it addresses Sūrya, its emergence from the horizon in the morning, its impact on the earth, etc. The Veda refers to Rudra as Agṇi, “rudro vā ēṣa yad agṇiḥ”. The Vedas also state that Chandra and Agṇi, the terrestrial fires, derive their power from Sūrya, who is called the foremost entity. Rudra is the visual Supernatural power on Earth. In the Vedas, Rudra is Śiva, “śivo nah sumanā bhava”. The Sun’s rays are referred to as arrows, and as he throws the rays on Earth, he is called the wielder of a bow, Dhanvin.
16.7.6. Several Rudras
As the Sun’s rays are innumerable and reach through the space, through trees, through hills, etc., they are called Rudras in hundreds, or thousand-footed Sūrya, (sahasra pād, sahasra akṣa, and sahasra śīrṣa, or thousand eyes or thousand hands). Therefore, they are said to be on Earth, intermediate space, and in heaven. (ye prithivyām, ye antarikṣe, ye divi).
16.7.7. Śiva, Harihara, and Ardhanāri
Rudra Sūrya’s rays have two inherent powers: one is the terrific heat, and the other is the spreading benign light. The former is called Ghorā, and the latter is Śivā (the latter, in feminine gender, stands for auspiciousness). The benign light is also called Viṣṇu, and so the Śrī Rudram ends with the salutation om namo bhagavate rudrāya viṣṇavē mṛtyur me pāhi, “Oh lord Rudra-Viṣṇu, please protect me from death”, that is, Hari-Hara. As the benign part of him is called “Śivā”, he is also referred to as Śiva, Śivā, and Ardhanāri.
16.8. Śrīmad Bhāgavatam
Among the well-known Puraṇas, Śrī Bhāgavatam is the most beautiful and popular Purāṇa. Especially noteworthy is its 10th skandha, which deals with the life of Kṛṣṇa under the name “Śrī Kṛṣṇa caritam”.
The tenth skandha is divided into two parts: the first and the second. It likely formed the core of the main Purāṇa, which gradually expanded. As it stands, it consists of 12 skandhas.
The text concludes with the claim that it was told by Viṣṇu to Brahmā while he was seated on the lotus. Arising from the nabhi of Viṣṇu, Brahma was worried about the world. The text is also known as “Hari-līla-katha”.
It is hailed as the essence of all the Vedāntas (Sarva Vedānta Sāra), dealing mainly with the unity of the individual soul and Supreme Brahman. Thus, it is an Advaita text (Vāstu-advaitam) and culminates in Brahmātma-aikyam, as per the text itself.
The text has short notes (Tika) by one Śrīdhara, which goes by the name Bhāvārtha dipika – i.e., “Light on the meaning of consciousness.” The commentator explains this as “Hari-līla-katha vratam”, i.e., samūhah, an anthology of sports of Hari. It further claims to have 18,000 slokas, Aṣtadasa-sahasram.
At the beginning of the text, there is a portion called “Bhāgavata purāṇa mahātmyam” that gives a captivating allegorical story in which the concept of bhakti (devotion) is portrayed as a young lady born in the Dramida country. She went to Karnataka country, and then to Mahārāshtra and Gujarat where she became emaciated and weak.
Finally, she reached Brindāvan, where she got rejuvenated and became again an attractive young woman and so on. While this imaginary story is certainly attractive and possibly shows some historical movements of Tamiḻ Bhakti, it does not seem to be an original part of the purāṇa and is clearly a later addition.
The reason is not far to seek. While the commentary that exists in full, from the first skandha to the very end, it is not there in the Mahātmya part. Secondly, the first skandha begins altogether as a new text and hence it is clear the Mahātmya part is a post-Tika addition (commentary).
It also suggests that this part dealing with the bhakti of Tamiḻnāḍu actually was added in Tamiḻnāḍu and is the source of the Southern recession of the Bhāgavatam.
As the text is very popular, there have been many scholarly studies on this text and its dating. The website of Bhakti Vedanta Prabhupada has an important discussion on this subject, and readers are invited to visit this site for details of the important study (https://vedabase.io/en/search/?query=Bhagavatam). It may be seen that until recent times, it was considered a 13th-century text and now it is considered to be from between the 9th and 13th centuries.
An important inscription from the Viṣṇu temple of Varadarāja at Kāñcīpuram sheds valuable light on this subject and its role in the history of Śrīvaiṣṇava theology. The inscription is found on a rock north of the main temple of Varadarāja and is in Tamiḻ. It is dated in the reign of the Cōḻa ruler Vikrama Cōḻa in his 13th year, corresponding to 1131 CE. Thus, the record is firmly dated.
It was copied in the year 1919 by the Government Epigraphist, who published a small summary in their annual report in English. A recent publication gives the full text for the first time, nearly one hundred years after it was copied. Both these publications missed the importance of the inscription.
The inscription begins with the praṣasti of Vikrama Cōḻa and records that a high official of the king named Vikrama Cōḻa Brahmādhirāja, also known as Ēkambaraṉ Āḷudaiyaṉ of Kāñchīkkuri, purchased land from several persons, amounting to 2000 kuḻis for 100 kaḻañcu of gold. He deposited this in the treasury of Varadarāja (Āḻvār Paṇḍāram) and deposited a further 16 kaḻañcu of gold for meeting the expense of taxes on the land and on the cultivators of the land. He created a service kāṇi, and appointed one Mēvēndavelāṉ and his descendants to look after the cultivation of the land in perpetuity as a service tenure.
From the upper proceeds of the land, Brahmādhirājar arranged a service to himself of reciting Śrī Bhāgavatam in the presence of Lord Varadarāja in the month of puraṭṭāsi on ekādasi day. He arranged for a special thirumañjanam, oblation to Varadarāja, and offered a special food with rice, sugar, vegetables, ghee, and pepper, etc.
This endowment was for reciting Śrī Bhāgavatam in the presence of Varadarāja, starting from 1131 CE during the time of the Cōḻas. As it was not mentioned as a new composition, this record provides a terminal date for Bhāgavatam, which should now be placed before 1100 CE. Therefore, the date so far announced as the 13th century is no longer valid. It also establishes a connection between Bhāgavatam and Tamiḻnāḍu, which may explain the Māhatmya part at the beginning, referring to bhakti as born in Dramiladeśa. This has now some basis. Also, the recitation of the Bhāgavata in the Viṣṇu temples during Cōḻa times is established.
Another significant point is that if the date of Śrī Vaiṣṇava saint Rāmānuja is accepted, that he was born in 1017 and lived until his 120th year in 1137 CE, then it would mean that Bhāgavatam recitation in the Varadarāja temple of Kāñchīpuram was prevalent during his own lifetime. This raises some questions of Vaiṣṇava theology in his time. As mentioned earlier, this work, Bhāgavatam, was considered an Advaitic doctrine, and Rāmānuja's school does not contribute to the recognition of this text, though it is mainly a work on Vāsudeva Kṛṣṇa. There is a tradition among the Vaiṣṇava of Tamiḻnāḍu that the recitation of Bhāgavatam in Viṣṇu temples is not acceptable.
The Bhāgavatam itself says that anyone who recites or listens to its recitation purifies himself. And if he makes a special gift in the month of puraṭṭāsi, he acquires spiritual merit. It also ends by saying that the main message is the total identity of the individual soul with Parabrahmam, “Brahmātmaikya”, and hence it is a text on Advaita.
The present-day Vaiṣṇavites do not accept the recitation of this Bhāgavatam in Viṣṇu temples, though they celebrate very insignificant Purāṇas such as the Kaisiki Purāṇa to be recited annually. Further study on the impact of this tradition on Viṣṇu temples is a desideratum.
16.9. Endnotes and References
1.
Nagaswamy, R. “Ceyon and Murugan.” In Vedic Roots of Hindu Iconography. New Delhi: Kaveri Books, 2012. Please note, the drum used during hunting is called “Murukiyam”. This term is clearly connected with hunting, providing a clue to the origin of the name “Murugaṉ” or “Muruka” given to Cēyōṉ. The Sanskrit word for hunting is “Mṛg” or “Mṛgya”, where “Mṛga” stands for animal and “mṛgyam” stands for hunting. “Mṛgaya” changes to “Muruku” in Sanskrit.Such changes are quite commonly found from the Ṛg Vedic times onwards. For instance, the word “kṛu” changed into “kuru” in the age of the Ṛg Veda itself; see “karoti”, “kurutaḥ”, “kurvanti”. Refer to Monier Williams for more examples. Just as “kṛt” becomes “kuru”, “kurute” etc., in Sanskrit “Mṛg” becomes “Muruk”. “Muruga” stands for hunter and also lord of hunters, Chief of hunters. Thus, it is proved beyond doubt that the “Muruku” standing for Cēyōṉ (Kumara) is derived directly from Sanskrit, as are “Varuṇa”, “Vēṉtaṉ”, “Kāmaṉ”, “Durgā”, and so on.
2.
Puṟanāṉūru (no 56) - first the verse mentions him as Cēyōṉ (Kumara red in colour) with peacock in his flag, and rides on an elephant and was ever victorious. Later in the same verse he is called Murugaṉ who invariably achieves what he strives for.
மணி மயில் உயரிய மாறா வென்றிபிணிமுக ஊர்தி ஒள் செய்யோனும் எனmaṇi mayil uyariya māṟā veṉṟipiṇimuka ūrti oḷ ceyyōṉum eṉaமுருகு ஒத்தீயே முன்னி [எண்ணியது] முடித்தலின்muruku ottīē muṉṉiyatu [eṇṇiyatu] muṭittaliṉகூற்று ஒத்தீயே மாற்று அரு சீற்றம்வலி ஒத்தீயே வாலியோனைபுகழ் ஒத்தீயே இகழுநர் அடுநனைமுருகு ஒத்தீயே முன்னியது முடித்தலின் (புறம் )kūṟṟu ottīē māṟṟu aru cīṟṟamvali ottīē vāliyōṉaipukaḻ ottīē ikaḻunar aṭunaṉaimuruku ottīē muṉṉiyatu muṭittaliṉ (puram )
