chap13
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Vedic Roots of Hindu Iconography
R. Nagaswamy
CHAPTER-13
Viriñci Nārāyaṇa Śaṁkarātman
A prayer addressed to Savita in the Sandhyāvandana that appears at the end. It says that Savita is called the singular eye of the world (jagad eka cakṣuḥ), is the cause of creation, sustenance and dissolution of the Universe (jagad prasūti sthiti nāsa hetu) he is the essence of Vedas, (trayī maya) and triguṇātma dhārin) and Viriñci Narāyāṇa Śaṁkarātman and is to be prayed in the orbit of the Savitṛ Maṇdala. The Tamil traditons especially the Vaiṣaṇva Āḻvārs sing in the same vein.
Paripāṭal
The Paripāṭal poems of the Saṅgam age, extol the supremacy of Viṣṇu based on Vedic ideology and is in the broad spectrum of adoring Muruga, Śiva, and Durgā. One may say that all Gods were revered alike though one god may be extolled in one context, the others appearing in secondary position. One finds equal number of hymns addressed to Muruga in the same Paripāṭal collection.
The Saṅgam poems and also the post Saṅgam epics Cilappadikāram and Maṇimekhalai praise also Śiva and Durgā. They speak of Viṣṇu and Muruga in identical terms. For example the Paripāṭal extols Viṣṇu in the following lines. "Thou, Lord, art the inner meaning of the Vedas of Brahmins. Thou manifest in the sacrificial fire (agni of the yajñas) duly kindled according to the Vedic kalpas and receive the sacrificial offerings. Yajña-rūpa is thy form and that is how the Vedic Brahmins invoke Thou in fire".
How the other deities occupy a secondary position in this context may be seen from Paripādal (no 3 lines 1 to 78). This may also be compared with the hymn on Muruga, where he is praised as the inner meaning of the Vedas of the Brahmins, the other deities including Viṣṇu and Śiva appearing in secondary position (no 8). Muruga is the embodiment of Brahmaṇya that is the observance of Vedic tradition and addressed as Subramaṇya.
It is known from early epigraphs that the followers of Vedic tradition are called Brahmaṇyas. There are several Purāṇic legends about the manifestations of Viṣṇu, Śiva, and Muruga in Paripāṭal that closely follow the earlier Purāṇic accounts, closer to Vedic thoughts. One interesting phenomenon that needs attention is that madhura bhakti (love emotions) is more associated with Muruga, than Viṣṇu, who is looked upon with wonder and veneration (adbhuta).
Vedic tradition of Purāṇic theology
The Vedic tradition was enlarged and made more popular by illustrative legends compiled into 18 mahā-purāṇas. A study of all the mahā-purāṇas would show that the Vedic ideas are simplified into stories and clearly emphasize that both Viṣṇu or Śiva are identical and that one who differentiates them, as totally separate, knows neither Śiva nor Viṣṇu.
The division into Śaivite or Vaiṣṇavite purāṇas is artificial and does not reflect their true nature, explicitly stated by them. Early Vedic religion emerged as Purāṇic religion with the codifications of the latter. From the Mauryan age to the end of 10th cent CE one may say that purāṇic religion dominated the Indian scene as an extension of the Vedic tradition.
Pallava age (3rd to 9th cent)
The Pallava copper plate charters of the early period reveal an interesting aspect of religious devotion. One and the same ruler is addressed as a supreme devotee of Maheśvara, Viṣṇu, and Brahmaṇya (Parma-Māheśvara, Parama-Bhāgavata and Parma-Brahmaṇya), all in one. Some Indologists consider Śaivism and Vaiṣṇavism as mutually opposed, but cannot conceive both are complementary to each other as part of one and the same ideology. Epigraphs of 5th to 9th century depict the Pallava rulers as Śaivites, Vaiṣṇavites and devotees of Subrahmaṇya.
It is the Vedic ideology that is reflected in the royal orders that is often mentioned as Sanātana Dharma, the ancient tradition.
We may briefly note some monuments of he 6th to 10 the cent CE. One of the early temples recorded in inscription is that of Mahendra Pallava, 600 CE, excavated at Maṇṭakappaṭṭu, in Tamilnadu. The temple that still exists was called Brahma-Ìsvara-Viṣṇu lakṣitāyatana i.e., temple dedicated to Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva. On each side of the facade are representation of Garuḍa and Nandikeśvara as Dvārapālas. A cave temple of the same age is the lower rock cut temple at Thiruchirāppaḷḷi, that has two sanctums scooped, one on either side of the temple, meant for Śiva and Viṣṇu, while the rear wall has Gaṇeśa, Brahmā, Subrahmaṇya, Sūrya and Durgā. Brahmā occupying the central position making it a temple dedicated to the Trinity.
A cave temple at Māmallapuram assignable to the beginning of the 8th cent, houses Śiva, Viṣṇu, and Subrahmaṇya in the three cells and is rightly called the Trimūrti temple. There are both Śaivite and Vaiṣṇavite temples as Māmallapuram, assignable to the same age. The famous Sea-Shore temple complex is dedicated to both Śiva and reclining form of Viṣṇu. The Ādi-Varāha temple in the same place is dedicated to Varāha form of Viṣṇu that carries an inscription extolling the greatness of Rudra in characters of the same age and the temple itself named Parameśvara-Mahā-Varāha-Viṣṇu Gṛaha. The vast open-air sculptures of Arjuna's penance, the Kṛṣṇa maṇḍapa portraying the Govardhana-dhāri panel and the Mahiṣāśurmardini cave clearly show, the overwhelming role of Purāṇās in their creation. Similarly, the sculptural portrayal at the Kailāsanātha temple of Kāñcīpuram is a clear example of the Purāṇic tradition in temple arts of the beginning of 8th century.
In ancient village settlements, temples to Viṣṇu, Śiva, Saptmāta, Durgā and other deities were all consecrated in separate temples as part of the whole village layout. This is evidenced by the Uttaramērūr village, founded by the Pallava emperor, Nandivarman in the mid 8th cent. Uttaramērūr was a village laid as per the Vaikhānasa-āgama, the Marīci-samhita. It is well known the Vaikhānasa school of Vaiṣṇava system was mainly Vedic, admitted by the texts themselves and also the living traditions. Though there were temples dedicated individually to Śiva or Viṣṇu, there was harmony in approach, and that they were held as part of the whole system and wherever praises are found to any single deity, the same is to be understood contextually and not in isolation.
Pāṇḍiyan tradition
Two illustrations may be cited from the Pāṇḍiyan country. Two cave temples were excavated side-by-side, one dedicated to Śiva and the other to Viṣṇu in his reclining form at Tirumeyyam? in Putukkōṭṭai state. Though, these are now separated by later walls, they formed part of the same dedication originally is clear enough. Tirumaṅgai Āḻvār has sung the Viṣṇu temple in the 8th cent. Both the temples are assignable to the beginning of the seventh cent CE.
The famous Subrahmaṇya temple at Tirupparamkuṉṟam near Madurai is an excavated temple with two sanctums excavated one on eithe side, one dedicated to Viṣṇu and the other to Śiva. While the facde of the rock on the side of the Viṣṇu sanctum, carries three images of Viṣṇu as Ādinātha, Varāha and Narasimha, the other facde on the side of the sanctum of Śiva, carries a beautiful form of Dancing Śiva, accompanied by other deities. At the back wall of the sanctum are seen Subramaṇya, Durgā, and Gaṇeśa. The image of Subrahmaṇya has assumed importance through the centuries and is the main deity now. However originally the cave temple was consecrated to both Śiva and Viṣṇu in the 8th cent.
Many such temples dedicated to both Śiva and Viṣṇu could be cited but suffice it to say that when the Āḻvārs were composing their poems, it was the Purānic synthesis that permeated the Tamil landscape.
Poems of Āḻvārs
The poems of Āḻvārs could also be studied against this back ground. The dates of Āḻvārs are well settled as between 5th to 9th cent. CE. Though the Āḻvārs sang the supreme nature of Viṣṇu, there was no doubt in their minds, that Viṣṇu, Śiva and Brahmā are absolutely identical and that they sang truly purāṇic ideology of oneness of Trinities, as Viriñci, Nārāyaṇa, Śaṁkarātman of the Sandhyā-vandana and in this approach they were the true spokesmen of Vedic tradition.
Tiruvāymoḻi of Nammāḻvār
The thousand poems of Namāḻvār, the most respected among the Āḻvārs, were called Tiruvāymoḻi that constitute the last collections of the Divya-prabandham group. The Āḻvār himself says that the last hymn of ten verses, of his composition were the end of his thousand poems. Thus the last hymn serves as the very summum bonum of the Āḻvār's theology. Even among the last ten verses the last verse and three others, represent his conclusions.
Namāḻvār says that, the greatest desire among all the desires is the achievement of salvation, which once achieved, no further desire remains. In other words “one reaches a desire-less state”. The Āḻvār says that having extolled Hari (Viṣṇu), Aya (Brahmā) and Hara (Śiva) he has obtained salvation and there is no further desire in him. (ariyai, ayaṉai, araṉai alaṟṟi, avā aṟṟu, vīṭu peṟṟa, tirukkurukūr saḍakōpan). He has achieved both salvation and the desire-less state at the same time. These last words of Namāḻvār, that enabled him to attain salvation by singing Viṣṇu, Brahmā and Śiva, proves that his brand of Vaiṣṇavism was an all embracing Hindu faith of adoring the Trinity of Purāṇic theism. It needs to be emphasized that this is the concluding verses of the Āḻvār.
avā arac cūḻ ariyai, ayaṉai, araṉai alaṟṟi
avā aṟṟu vīḍu peṛṛa kurukūr caṭakōpan coṉṉa
avā il antātikaḷivai pattum āyiram muṭinta
avāil antāti pattu arintōr pirantār uyarntē - 11
Birth of liberation is certain for those
Who realize this antāti verses ten,
That ends the thousand poems
Sung by Saṭakōpan of Tirukurukūr,
Who has conquered his desires,
And attained salvation that ended his wishes by
Singing the greatness of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva
Namāḻvār and Naṭarāja
A most significant verse of the Āḻvār, that speaks of Viṣṇu as ākāsa, param-joti, Jñāna, and ānanda residing in the heart of the devotee, recalls the figure of Naṭarāja
cūḻntu akaṉṟu āḻntu uyarnta muṭivu il perum pāḻe oh
cūḻntu atanil periya para nal malarc cūṭi oh
cūḻntu atanil periya cuṭar jñāna inpamē oh
cūḻntu atanil periya eṉ avā aṟa cūḻntāyē - verse 10
Encompassing and expanding,
Fathoming and soaring high,
Thou art the expansive endless void;
Thou encircling the void appear
As the auspicious rising, Supreme light;
Encompassing the great light
Thou art the great Knowledge and bliss and
Thou have consumed me to put an end to my desires.
umparam taṇ pāḻē ō ataṉuḷ micai nīyē ō
amparam nal cōti ataṉuḷ piraman aran nī
umparum mātavarum paṭaitta munivaṉ avaṉ nī
emparam cātikkaluṟṟu eṉṉai pōra viṭṭāy
Thou art the cool space of the celestials
Thou resideth in that vast space
Thou art the ambaram-
The vast expansive sky as illuminating light
Thou art Brahmā and Śiva residing inside that shining light
Thou art the sage who created the celestials and the great saints
Thou have conferred on me that supreme state
And also made me cross that state.
In another verse of the same hymn, the Āḻvār addresses the Lord as “Mukkaṇ Appa - Śiva my Father with the three eyes”.
muniyē nāṉmukaṉē mukkaṇappā eṉ pollā
kaṉivāy tāmaraik kaṇ karu māṇikkamē eṉ kaḷvā
taniyēṉ āruyirē eṉ talai micaiyāy vantiṭṭu
iṉi nāṉ pōkal oṭṭēṉ, oṉṛum māyam ceyyēl eṉṉaiyē
Oh thou Sage, Brahmā, and áiva
My lotus eyed, sweet lipped, black - gem
My thief! My intimate life
As thou hast manifested in my mind
I wouldn't let you go away
Don't play any māyā on me!
The Āḻvār calls the Lord as Śiva in at least three verses of his last hymn, and extolls him in identical terms as one would address the dancing form of Śiva. Viṣṇu is the support of the celestials - the vast space also called ambaram-ākāśa. Ākāśa is addressed by the Śaivite Nāyanmār, Appar as kaḍuvēli?, i.e., vast immeasurable empty space. The word perum pāḻ employed by the Āḻvār is the exact equivalent of the term, kaḍuvēli? of the Nāyanmārs. The Āḻvār calls Viṣṇu as the great, auspicious and supreme light that emanates in ākāśa. periya, para, nal malar joti - the effulgent light. This could also be understood in the terms of Śiva Naṭarāja, who dances in the midst of ākāśa. Often ākāśa in which Śiva Naṭarāja dances is called parama-ākāśa, the metaphysical Supreme space. It is the same lord whom the Āḻvār addresses as auspicious, supreme light in the great void, perum pāḻ cūḻntu atanuḷ periya para nal malar joti.
Two concepts are emphasized in the form of Naṭarāja. First, Naṭarāja represents supreme knowledge, frequently called Jñāna-mā Naṭarāja. This knowledge appears as resplendent light dispelling the darkness of ignorance, appearing as the dwarf (apasmāra), shown beneath his foot. Second, the dance of Śiva culminates in Supreme happiness Ānanda and hence Naṭarāja's dance is called jñāna-ānanda-tāṇḍava, the dance of knowledge and bliss. This dance resides in chid, the consciousness of the devotee. The supreme desire in the mind of the devotee is to attain salvation, by visualizing the dance of Śiva in his consciousness.
The song cūḻnu akaṉṭu etc., of Namāḻvār elaborates the same concepts as the vast space, (para ākāśa), the supreme light, param joti, in the midst of space ākāśa, who appears as jñāna and ānanda, knowledge and bliss (jñāna inpam) and the consciousness of the devotee where the god's dance takes place. This verse of Namāḻvār could be applied either to Viṣṇu or Naṭarāja as the Āḻvār does not mention any God by name.
As mentioned already he addresses explicitly that "thou appear as joti in ambara and thou art Brahmā and Śiva in it". Also he prays “muniyē, nāṉmukaṉē, ayaṉē, araṉē, mukkaṇappā” referring to the Trinity. The term Muni is employed to denote Viṣṇu's incarnation as Nārayaṇa. Nānmukan is the four-headed Brahmā. Mukkaṇṇappā is Śiva, the three eyed. The Āḻvār's address to the Lord as Trinity is couched in such an emotional appeal that for him the Supreme Lord is Viṣṇu, Brahmā and Śiva.
Bhārgavi Vidyā
I have mentioned earlier that the purāṇās are the extension of the Vedic tradition. There is a Vedic passage called Bhṛgu-valli, in which Bhṛgu, approached his father Varuṇa and requested him to teach him the nature of Brahman, the Supreme. His father advised him to do penance and realize Brahman himself. Bhṛgu first thought that annam i.e. food was Brahman, then he thought that it was vital breadth prāṇa and then he thought it could be mind - manas. In this way he approached his father again and again. His father persuaded him to do further penance and realize Brahman. The last two stages of Bhṛgu's realization are interesting. He realized it was supreme knowledge vijñāna, that is Brahman and lastly he realized it was bliss Ānanda that is Brahman. All searches, ended up in knowledge and bliss, jñāna and ānanda as the ultimate Brahman. This Vedic hymn is well known as the “Bhārgavi Vidyā” in the Vedas itself. The dawn of knowledge ending in bliss is considered as Ānanda in the Vedas. That is what Namāḻvār says as jñāna-inpam in his last hymn. This takes place in the illuminating light appearing in ākāśa. Citing this Vedic passage Śrīkaṇḍa, the Śivādvaita commentator on Brahma Sūtras, says the term ākāśa denotes ānanda. ākāśa iti ānandaḥ ucyate. ākāśa and ānanda are synonyms. He also says the term is used to denote Chidambaram; ākāśa iti cidambara prakñitiḥ? ucyate. This is the direct extension of the Vedic concept that is indicated explicitly by Namāḻvār.
Namāḻvār's Firm Faith
So Namāḻvār concludes that his Tiruvāymoḻi extolled Hari, Hara and Brahmā, eliminated all his desires, and enabled him to attain salvation, and those who realized this end verse of his thousand poems, reach the highest state among mortals.
Purāṇic base
That these are direct reflections of the Purāṇas can be demonstrated from several passages from Purāṇas especially the Viṣṇu purāṇa and the Kūrma purāṇa. “In the ultimate state there is no difference between Mahādeva and me. The Supreme lord out of his own volition created the Divines, Demons and the human beings of the three worlds, made himself the inner propelling force (antaryāmi) and the overlord (Īśvara) manifested as Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva by their respective actions.”
aham caiva mahādevaḥ na bhinnaḥ paramārthataḥ
vibhāvya svechayā ātmānam saḥ antaryāmi īśvaraḥ sthithaḥ
trailokyam akhilam sṛiṣṭum brahmatvam samupāgataḥ
tasmāt brahmā mahādevaḥ viṣṇuḥ viśveśvaraḥ paraḥ
ekasyaiva smṛtāḥ tiśraḥ tadvat kārya-vasād prabhoḥ
This is a clear declaration that the Supreme Being is called Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva by functional differences and are not different entities. At one stage Śiva says in the Kūrma purāṇa that:-
“I am Time, Kāla who burns down all bondages and am Hara, the creator of time Kāla. I activate the entire mobile and immobile beings. Viṣṇu is Puruṣa, the propelling force of all beings, while I am Puruṣottama. Viṣṇu is the Māyā prakṛti called by men Parāśakti, the germinal abode (jagat yoni) of the universe. Nārāyaṇa, the creator of the whole world is the Supreme Unmanifest Principle according to the Vedas. I am called the Supreme when I assume the role of Destroyer. My Supreme power, Parā-śakti is called Vidyā-deha body of knowledge. Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Īśvara are the entities that have neither beginnings nor end, but reside in Brahman, the unmanifest and imperishable. This is the Supreme state of bliss of the Soul (ātmānanda and param tattvam) that is the essence of Conciousness (cin-mātra) also called ākāśa, the blemishless Brahman” (Kūrma purāṇa – uttarārdham c.35-62-73)
This passage of the Kūrma purāṇa deserves special attention. It speaks of the identity of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva, the manifests of Para-Brahman (of the Vedāntins). The Purāṇa also connects Para-Brahman with the inner consciousness, which is also called ākāśa in the Purāṇa. This is designated the supreme state Parama-pada. Namāḻvār's poem cited, mentioning the same concepts seems to be a direct rendering of the purāṇa.
To conclude we may now cite some beginning verses of Namāḻvār in his Tiruvāymoḻi:-
It is the supreme
That took forms as one and many
That is beyond all comprehensions
That revealed itself as
Beautiful Nārāyaṇa, Brahmā and Śiva,
Effaced our bondages hither and beyond
And made our days auspicious and Blissful.
oṉṛu eṉap pala eṉa aṛivu arum vaṭivinuḷ niṉṟa
naṉṟu eḻil nāraṇaṉ nāṉmukaṉ araṉ eṉṉum ivarai
oṉṟu num manattil vaittu, uḷḷi, num iru pasai aṛuttu
naṉṟu eṉa nalam ceyvatu avaṇitai nammutai nāḷee
ஒன்று எனப் பல என அறிவு-அரும் வடிவினுள் நின்ற
நன்று எழில் நாரணன் நான்முகன் அரன் என்னும் இவரை
ஒன்ற நும் மனத்து வைத்து, உள்ளி, நும் இரு பசை அறுத்து,
நன்று என நலம் செய்வது அவனிடை நம்முடை நாளே
The vedic tradition is further explicitly mentioned in Namāḻvār's poem when he puts in the mouth of Kṛṣṇa the following statement: “I am the cause of rituals and the fruits of ritual action.” krumamum karuma palaṉum ākiya kāraṇaṉ taṉṉai
At another place he echoes the same words of Kūrma-Purāṇa when he says “which ever is dear to an individual, that form is his chosen God, to whom he should perform worship. For Saṭakōpa it was made possible by taking refuge in lord Viṣṇu.”
yāvaiyum evarum tānāy avaravar camyam tōṟum
toyvu ilaṉ pulaṉ aintukku colappaṭāṉ uṇarviṉ mūrti
āvi cēr uyiriṉ uḷḷāl ātum ōr paṟṟilāta
pāvanai ataṉaik kūṭil avaṉaiyum kūṭalāme.
curar aṟivaru nilai viṇ muḻuvatum
varaṉ mutalāy avai muḻutuṇṭa parāparaṉ
puram mūṉṟu erittu amararkku aṟiviyantu
araṉ ayaṉ eṉa ulaku aḻittu amaittu ulaṉë
In this verse the Āḻvār refers to Śiva destroying the three forts of the demon, (Tripura-samhāra), and equates Viṣṇu to Brahma the creator (Ajan-Ayan) and Hara the dessolver of the Universe.
It is appopriate to mention here that Madhurakavi Āḻvār a desciple and a contemporary of the Namāḻvār sums up the theology of Namāḻvār in the following words:- “Śrī Saṭakōpa sang the inner meaning of the Vedas of the Vedic Brahmins and made me retain them in my mind, as I have taken refuge in him.”
mikka vediyar vedattiṉ uṭporuḷ pāṭi
nirkap pādi eṉ neñjinuḷ niruttinān
takka cīr caṭakopan eṉ nampikku āṭ
pukka kātal aṭimai payaṉ aṉṟē
That virtually is a commentary on Namāḻvār's theological position.
Namāḻvār is clear in his mind and sings in his verses, that his theology is Vedic ideology and is based on the identity of Trinity and that he is adoring Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva as the Supreme that bestows salvation on the devotee. He declares the same ideology both at the beginning and end of his Thiruvāymoḻi hymns. It has also been shown that Kurma-purāṇa specifically mentions that the Vedas declare Trinity as the Supreme. From the elucidation of Trinity in the early Purāṇas it would be appropriate to hold that the Āḻvārs were propagating the Puraṇic theology of Trinity with contextual emphasis on Viṣṇu, Kṛṣṇa.
யாவையும் எவரும் தானாய், அவரவர் சமயம் தோறும்
தோய்வு இலன்; புலன் ஐந்துக்கும் சொலப்படன்; உணர்வின் மூர்த்தி.
ஆவி சேர் உயிரின் உள்ளால் ஆதும் ஓர் பற்று இலாத
பாவனை அதனைக் கூடில், அவனையும் கூடலாமே
வலத்தனன் திரிபுரம் எரித்தவன், இடம்பெற உந்தித்
தலத்து எழு திசைமுகன் படைத்த நல் உலகமும் தானும்
புலப்பட, பின்னும் தன் உலகத்தில் அகத்தனன் தானே;
சொலப்புகில், இவை பின்னும் வயிற்று உள; இவை அவன் துயக்கே.
திரு-உடம்பு வான் சுடர்; செந்தாமறை கண்; கை கமலம்;
திரு இடமே மார்வம்; அயன் இடமே கோப்பூழ்;
ஒருவு இடமும் எந்தை பெருமாற்கு அரனே; ஒ!
ஒருவு இடம் ஒன்று இன்றி, ஏன்னுள் கலந்தானுக்கே.
ஒளி மணி வண்ணன் என்கோ? ஒருவன் என்று ஏத்த நின்ற
நளிர் மதிச் சடையன் என்கோ? நான்முகக் கடவுள் என்கோ?
அளி மகிழ்ந்து உலகம் எல்லாம் படைத்து, அவை ஏத்த, நின்ற
களி மலர்த் துளவன், எம்மான், கண்ணனை, மாயனையே