Tamil Nadu, The Land of the Vedas

chap13 chapter_12.html chapter_13.html chapter_14.html Tamil Nadu, The Land of the Vedas R. Nagaswamy 13. VEDIC LAWS: ĀPASTAMBA DHARMA ŚĀSTRA

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13.1. Role of Dharma Śāstras

The social history of Indian people is largely embedded in the Dharma Sūtrās which controls the lifestyle of individuals. Most Scholars refer to Manu Dharma Śāstra in a vague manner. Manu and Yājñavalkya were extensively used in royal transactions mainly in civil and criminal disputes and punishments in courts. But the actual life was controlled by the Dharma Śāstras of Āpastamba, Bodhāyana and others. The rules prescribed in these texts were followed in all the rites from birth to death. Though the majority of them are common rules, there are some special codes the individual texts emphasize which were also followed. It is a fact that in ancient records, names of thousands of Vedic Brāhmaṇas are preserved for the past two thousand years which invariably mention their gōtra and sūtrā. While gōtra are the lineages of the individual, it is the sūtrā they followed that detail the code of their life. A statistical analysis for examples shows that out of 1000 Vedic scholars listed in one record, nearly 700 were the followers of Āpastamba and around 80 followed Bodhāyana though they came from different parts of South India. The Āpastamba’s gṛhya-sūtrās is available which shows their life was controlled by this text. Similar is the case of Bodhāyana sūtrās which for example, most of the temple priests of Śiva and Viṣṇu temples were followers of Bodhāyana sūtrā. Therefore, a study of these texts is necessary while writing the social history of the people. As this requires a separate study some aspects alone are pointed out in this study. Thus, some lists of the sūtrās available through the centuries are given here to emphasize the importance of this study. Most of the Vedic colleges established under the Cōḻas included the study of Dharma Śāstras as an important subject which included not only Manu but also Bodhāyana. The worship in classical temples is influenced by the Bodhāyana-sūtrā which gives the longest list of Dēvatās to be worshipped daily. The Advaita exponent Adi Śaṅkarācārya has written commentary on two chapters of Āpastamba-sūtrā which shows the impact of this school on the outlook of Smārta Brāhmaṇas. The following study is only an attempt to point to the availability of sources for further study. The sūtrās, also called Smṛtis, are divided into three parts, as gṛhya-sūtrā, dharma-sūtrā, and śrauta-sūtrā. These sūtrās briefly describe the code of life and observances found in the Vedas. In essence, these Smṛtis preach the teachings or the pathways of the Vedas called the Vaidika-mārga. The gṛhya-sūtrā deal with the conduct of rules for domestic life, beginning from the birth of children, their upbringing, education, marriage, family life, etc. Up to this point, it is the first part of gṛhya-sūtrā called Pūrvam and the death rites are the second or later half called Aparam. The relationship with the external world, men, and matters, also in domestic life is controlled by legal laws called the dharma. The dharma-sūtrās are therefore the law codes. The Vedas are called Śrutis and so the types and modes of Vedic sacrificial rites are called śrauta-sūtrās. Many sages at different places and times have codified these texts as guides and so we have some prominent sūtrā texts spread all over India. In the case of more known authors, we find the same author has compiled all the three sūtrās namely, gṛhya, dharma and śrauta-sūtrās and their texts have survived, for example, one of the earliest compilers was Bodhāyana whose three texts are available. We find most of the Hindus including Veḷḷāḷars (Śūdras till the middle of the last century) invariably mention the sūtrās they followed. For example, Veḷḷāḷars called themselves followers of Bodhāyana. Thus, these codes of conduct went beyond caste barriers, playing a crucial role in the legal system of the Hindus. Though the way of life described is mostly common in all these texts, there are some minor variations in rituals or what we may call customs of regions. For example, some marriage customs of North India are not accepted in the South and vice versa. Another example is the case of cross-cousin marriages which is not accepted in the North. While the śrauta Vedic sacrifices are optional, the gṛhya domestic lifestyles and the dharma provisions are obligatory and cannot be transgressed without inviting sin and/or punishments. Therefore, the sūtrā literature plays a vital role in Hindu society.

13.2. Āpastamba

While these have their important place, there were common law codes that the king enforced. These are the texts like Manu Dharma Śāstra and Yajñavalkhya Smṛti, which had the royal authority and permeated the entire society. Given their widespread authority and use, they had many erudite commentaries that provide a proper insight into Hindu society. As they invariably fall back on Vedic tenets, they were the Vedic paths called Vaidīka-mārga, and were studied invariably in the Vedic colleges as part of their curriculum. As this is an ancient society with a well-classified lifestyle, every individual has preserved their family genealogy called gōtram which traces back to a particular sage who lived four thousand years ago. These gōtra names are preserved in most families for two reasons: one to remember their ancestry and two in marriage customs. In some legal requirements, seven generations are calculated in families. Thus, many of the ancient records mention the gōtra and sūtrā of their family which also help social historians to trace the nativity and migration pattern of the family and the law code that played a major role and consequently the life of the people. For example, some of the Vedic gōtras, like Agastya, Kācyapa, Kāpyaṉ, Kauṇḍiṇya, Gautama, Kaucika, Ātrēya, Bhāradvāja, Mādalaṉ, Parāsaraṉ, and so on, were present in Tamiḻnāḍu for the last two thousand years. Similarly, we find that more than sixty percent of the Vedic Brāhmaṇas were followers of the Āpastamba school, followed by the Bodhāyaniyas. As their texts are still in use it is possible to trace the lifestyle to two thousand years in Tamiḻnāḍu. A few analyses of gōtra and sūtrā are included here which furnishes amazing data. We have seen that Tolkāppiyam mentions eight forms of marriages, beginning from Brāhmam, as the systems approved by the Brāhmins. This is based on Bodhāyana’s Dharma Śāstra. Āpastamba does not approve of all the eight forms. Another sūtrā of Tolkāppiyam shows that originally the Gandharva marriage was the form prevalent among the Śūdras, but when falsehood and stealthy behaviour manifested in the society, the Brāhmins introduced compulsory registration of marriages. That is an indication of how Brāhmins helped the society discipline itself through dharma. There is an interesting custom mentioned in Saṅgam age that when a king died due to natural cause like old age or disease but not heroically on a battlefield, the learned Brāhmaṇas, who had mastered the four Vedas and were always lovers of righteous dharma, laid the body of that king on a spread of grass, recited a mantra, and drew a bunch of darbha grass from his head to feet symbolically. The mantra they recited means “Let this king go to heaven where heroic kings go when they die, on the battlefield receiving fatal wounds, leaving the weapons and their women”. It shows death rites of kings were performed by the Brāhmaṇas obviously following the gṛhya-sūtrās. This tradition is sung by the poet Avvaiyār. Here, Avvaiyār says it was the ideal aim of the Vedic Brāhmins of the four Vedas (arampuri koḷkai nāṉmaṟai mutalvar) to follow the path of dharma. Āpastamba is expounding the lifestyle of people as defined by great sages like Manu, who in turn codified life as defined by the Vedas. So, this style is applicable to the followers of the Vedic tradition. Buddha and Kapila taught dharma, but they did not accept the authority of the Vedas and their ways are not applicable to Vedic followers. Though this is a theological position, in actual life Buddhists and Jains followed the gṛhya traditions of Vedic life as seen from the Cilappatikāram and Maṇimēkalai wherein we find they do their marriage rites with Brāhmin priests (See the chapter 4, pages 1 and 2, Vedic tradition in Cilappatikāram). The Vedic school accepts the four varnāśrama dharma as Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya, and Śūdra, and all of them were called Āryas. The knowledge of the system is called Samayam. The first three Varṇās should recite Gāyatrī which is called “Sāvitrit hymn” initiated with sacred thread, upanayana, after which they become eligible for studying the Vedas under an Ācārya. The Brāhmin boy should be initiated at the age of eight from the year of conception in the womb of his mother. The Kṣatriya boy at the age of 11, and the Vaiśya boy at the age of 12. The Ācārya should have studied the Vedas, the six aṅgas, and their meanings and be born in a family of Vedic scholars. Āpastamba says that all three varṇas are eligible to study the Vedas which means 80 percent of the society studied the Vedas. Brahmam means Vedam. Brahmacāri means one who learns the Vedas. One can complete the study of one’s Vedas depending upon his wish to study in 9, 12, 14, 24, or 36 years. Vedic study can also be had for three years per one Veda. Āpastamba prescribes a minimum of three years for the Vedic studies; also, he prescribes that the student should not participate in betting dice, and should not go to festivals or other gatherings during his studentship. He should not indulge in politics and should not see dance. These were considered distractions. Āpastamba dharma-sūtrā has two commentaries, one by Ādi Śaṅkarācārya, the Advaita exponent, and the other by Haradattācārya, named Ujjvala. Śaṅkarā’s commentary is the earliest, its date being dependent on his time period. Haradatta’s belonged to a later period as he cites Śaṅkara.

13.3. Āpastamba on Feeding Guests

Āpastamba mentions some codes to be observed when guests pay a visit which he outlines in his dharma-sūtrā. He says that whenever an Atithi (guest) comes home, the householder must receive him with respect as he would receive his Ācārya and feed him irrespective of whether he is a Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya, or Śūdra. This practice is obligatory and not optional. Thus, Brāhmins who were followers of dharma were feeding visitors of all castes in ancient times and there was no prohibition for entertaining a Śūdra. After feeding, the place where they ate should be cleaned with cow dung, and sprinkled with water, the vessels should be cleaned, and the stick used should be thrown outside the house. This is a prescribed dharma for any visitor. Similarly, other Sūtrakāras like Bodhāyana also prescribed the same and directed Brāhmaṇas to welcome their guests, whatever their caste, similar to how he would feed an Ācārya. What if a greater number of guests comes? Bodhāyana says “You may feed all of them if you can afford to. There may be household members dependent on you. In this case, one has to set apart food for them and then feed the guests. If you cannot afford it all, at least select the old ones and feed them. Even if there is difficulty then feed the one who came first”. It is interesting to note that in the life of Śrī Rāmānuja, the Visiṣhtādvaita exponent, a myth is told.

13.4. Tirukkachi Nambi

Rāmānuja invited the Tirukkachi Nambi of Varadarāja temple for lunch. But he himself had to go outside for work. So, he told his wife that he would be back shortly and asked her to tell Nambi that he would come shortly. As expected, Nambi came, but Rāmānuja was delayed. Nambi told Rāmānuja’s wife that he had to leave urgently. So, she requested him to take food which he did, and then asked her to inform Rāmānuja he had to leave urgently. After Nambi left, she was cleaning the place where Nambi ate and sprinkled water when Rāmānuja returned. He is said to have thought that his wife was cleaning the place because Nambi was a Śūdra and so was furious. He sent his wife back to her father’s house that night under a pretext and the next morning he took Sanyāsa and left the house. This episode is only a concocted story by Pravacanikas which has caused embarrassment to Researchers because this was to show that Rāmānuja entertained Śūdra in his house and took Sanyāsa on that account and showed he was a revolutionary going beyond caste barriers. This story also portrayed women in a bad light, especially his wife who is almost considered among the Vaiṣṇava circle a virtual villain. We should examine what was against the prevalent faith during Rāmānuja’s time. We have two important copper plate charters; one by Rājēndra Cōḻa in whose reign Rāmānuja was born. According to the present tradition he was born in 1018. Rājēndra was crowned in the year 1012-3, almost on the same year Rājēndra issued the Puttūr copper plates mentioning that he settled 1080 Vedic Brāhmaṇas. In the new settlement named after his mother Tribhuvana Mahādevī, there were over 650 Brāhmaṇa followers of Āpastamba sūtrā and considerable other numbers were followers of Bodhāyana. The Brāhmins were followers of the dharma-sūtrās of these Sūtrakāras in their life which they will not violate. So, the Brāhmins did not think that inviting a Śūdra to lunch was prohibited because of his caste and that Rāmānuja had no revolution to do for it was already in practice there for over one thousand and five hundred years. Rājēndra ruled up to 1044. His three sons succeeded him up to almost 1070. That is Rāmānuja’s past 50 years of life. A copper plate grant of three sons of Rājēndra recently found at Indaḷūr also mentions thousands of Brāhamaṇs were in Tamiḻnāḍu and amongst them we find over 60 percent were followers of Āpastamba, Bodhāyana, and others. As the dharma-sūtrās welcome the Brāhmaṇa feeding the Śūdras and when one ate prescribed the mode of cleaning the place etc. What Rāmānuja’s wife did could not be considered wrong. She did follow what was considered dharma of the society. Rāmānuja was an outstanding Vedic scholar writing brilliant Śri Bhāṣya, Gitā Bhaṣya, and Vedārtha-saṅgraha and was a Vedamārgin. The story of Rāmānuja’s Sanyāsa is absurd and can prove nothing about any social revolution. The Tamiḻ kings followed the Vedic Dharma Śāstra. Ālatturkiḻār singing the Cōḻa Kiḷḷi Vaḷavaṉ, (puṟam 34) says that the dharma has declared there is no redemption for an “ungrateful man”. The poet says in this verse that the following are unpardonable sins - cutting the udder of cows, destroying the pregnancy of a tender woman, and cruel attack on Brāhmins are indeed the worst sins, but even these acts have expiations to redeem them but there is no redemption for ungratefulness". Evidently, the Saṅgam Tamiḻ society upheld the sanctity of cows, pregnant women, and Vedic Brāhmins and gratefulness. These are frequently mentioned in expiation, (prāyascitta) canto of Dharma Śāstras. ஆன் முலை அறுத்தஅறன் இலொர்க்கும் மான் இழை மகளிர் கருச்சிதைத் தோர்க்கும் பார்ப்பார் தப்பிய கொடுமை யொர்க்கும் வழுவாய் மருங்கில் கழுவாயும் உளதே நிலம் புடை பெயர்வதாயினும் ஒருவன் செய்தி கொன்றோர்க்கு உய்தி இல்லென அறம் பாடிற்றே ஆயிழை கணவ (புறம் 34) āṉ mulai aṟutta'aṟaṉ ilorkkum māṉ iḻai makaḷir karuccitait tōrkkum pārppār tappiya koṭumai yorkkum vaḻuvāy maruṅkil kaḻuvāyum uḷatē nilam puṭai peyarvatāyiṉum oruvaṉ ceyti koṉṟōrkku uyti illeṉa aṟam pāṭiṟṟē āyiḻai kaṇava (puṟam 34)

13.5. Dharma Śāstra of Bodhāyana

Bodhāyana, one of the earliest lawmakers, begins his Dharma Śāstra with the lifestyle of people and the authority of the texts that serve as the guiding principle. He says the foremost authority on aspects of life is the Vedas. These are called śrutis. The second authority is the body of text that is smṛtis - the law books which are recalled from experience. They remained codified in the Dharma Śāstras like that of Manu, Bodhāyana, Āpastamba, and others. These form the second-level authorities and are called Smārta texts. When these two are not available, the acts of honest and learned men who had studied all the Vedas, their aṅgas as prescribed in Dharma Śāstras called the Śiṣṭhas are to be considered. Any evidence was considered valid (pramāṇās) when following the Dharma Śāstras and followed by the observances of the siṣṭhas. The observances of Śiṣṭhas are defined as follows:

Those who do not envy others
Who are not arrogant,
Who do not amass wealth or grains more than required for short periods,
Bereft of greed, showmanship, condescension (kṛpanatva), infatuation,
bereft of anger, and
Men of greatness are accepted as valid deeds.

They stand by surety for Vedic prescriptions and inferences from the little-known Vedas. Where there are no expert Vedic scholars, who could clear doubts on dharma, then ten Śiṣṭhas could assemble and decide, and such an assembly Is called Pariṣad. The assembly of ten pariṣad consists of those who have studied four Vedas, Mīmāṁsā Śāstras, and studied Vyākaraṇa such as the Ṣaḍaṅgas, one who has studied Dharma Śāstra, and one who is either a bachelor (Brahmacāri), householder (Grahastas), or a recluse (Sanyāsin) can be included (Vānaprastha is not eligible as he has retired to the forest). When ten Pariṣads are not available, five scholars of the above qualifications or even one with such sterling qualities can continue as a Pariṣad. Even if thousands of people do not follow spiritual observances, do not know the meaning of Vedic mantras, but claim that their caste of birth alone is his right, he cannot serve a Pariṣad. Those who decide about punishment or expiatory rites but do not know the basic principles of Dharma Śāstra will invite ten times the sin. dharma has many subtle paths. Some may drag one, subtly to unacceptable routes. So, no decision should be pronounced by a single person, however great or knowledgeable he is. Those who pronounce expiatory punishments should take into consideration the defaulter’s health condition, age, strength, time, and the nature of punishment while pronouncing the judgment. The judiciary had a human approach as well. Bodhāyana recognizes two sets of customs, one based in northern India, and another in southern India. He mentions that the North Indians consider some customs of Southerners as unethical. These include:

eating seated with women,
boys not initiated with upavita sacred thread,
consuming food cooked the previous day,
marrying an uncle’s or aunt’s daughter, etc.,

which are considered degraded customs of the Dakṣiṇadēśa. The South Indians consider some customs of North Indians as disgraceful:

selling leather or blankets made of animal hair,
selling animals,
drinking liqueur,
carrying weapons and fighting with them,
sailing in ships to foreign countries on a voyage.

The mention of these customs shows some interesting points followed by the Brāhmins. While the Southerners opposed going to foreign countries and crossing oceans by ship, the northern Indians did not consider this a taboo. Thus, those who had gone far east like Thailand, Cambodia, and other countries were perfectly within their limitations. Marrying cousins is approved by the Southerners and continues to this day. Bodhāyana, however, says customs of different regions must be respected. According to Bodhāyana the land falling between Gaṅgā and Yamunā was known as Āryadeśa. The other regions like Aṅga, Vaṅga, Māgada, (Bihar) Kaliṅga (Orissa), Avanti (Madhya Pradesh), Saurāṣṭra, Dakṣiṇāpada, are impure regions for the people living there were of mixed blood. People going to these places must perform expiatory (purificatory) rites. Some of these concepts seem to be too remote in point of time. A large number of deities which we may categorise as external worship of devatās are mentioned under various groups. An analysis of these groups shows they form a totality of the Vedic deities and sages. In later times, these groups constituted the images in full or abbreviated forms in great temples as circles of deities called Āvaraṇas. There are many obscure images found in temples, which defy proper relevance and meaning. An understanding of this chapter will show that classical temple culture is an extension of essentially Vedic traditions listed in these Dharma Śāstras. Such groups start with what is called Vasu, Rudras and Ādityas, Ṛṣi gaṇas and Vidyā gaṇas and so on. Bodhāyana mentions the following sages Bhāradvāja, Gautama, Atri, and Aṅgirasa who were anterior to him. Interestingly poets with these names such as Baratādāyaṉ, Pālai Gautamaṉ, and Ātrēyaṉ were living in the Saṅgam age Tamiḻnaḍu about two thousand years ago. Bodhāyana also mentions the following sages as Sūtrakāras.

Kanva
Bodhāyana
Āpastamba
Satyāṣāda
Hiraṇyakeśi
Vājasaneyan
Yājñavalkya
Āsvalāyana
Saunaka
Vyāsa
Vasiṣṭa

13.6. Bodhāyana - 9th chapter

In the 8th chapter, he prescribes the procedure of taking a bath, with specific mantras, followed by the Gāyatrī Japam. These are essentially purifying rites of the self. The 9th chapter on Bodhāyana’s dharma-sūtrā gives the names and the order of performing daily religious rites. This chapter also deals with the adoration of many deities which we may categorise as external worship. Bodhāyana gives a long list of devatās mentioned in different groups. The listing of these groups is highly scientific and reflective of the Vedic concepts. I give the below names as given in the text which will be followed by the utterance of the word “tarpayāmi”. In the end, I shall analyze its relation to temple worship. The first group consists of what are known as Vasus (8), Rudras (11), Āditiyas (12), and Asvins (2). They form what are known as 18 gaṇas. They are the protectors of the east, south, west, and north entrances. They are worshipped along with their nakṣatras (stars). They clearly constitute the celestial guardians.

13.6.1. Eighteen Gaṇas

Vasus:

Agniḥ
Prajāpati
Soma
Rudrah
Aditi
Brahaspati

These are the Devatāni with their nakṣatras, grahas, the day and night these devatas are for the east. Rudras:

Pitarah
Aryamā
Bragavah
Savitā
Tvaṣṭā
Vāyu
Agni
Indra

These devatās are for the Southern direction. Ādityas

Mitra
Indra
Maha
Pitarah
Āpah
Viśvedevāh
Brahmā
Viṣṇu

These Devatās are for the West with their stars, graha, day and night and muhūrta: Another set of Vasus:

Varuṇa
Bṛhaspati
Aja ekapād
Ahirbudhniya
Pūṣa
Asvinau

These Devatas are for the North with their star and grahas. These are called Vasu, Rudra, Āditya and Aśvinau.

13.6.2. Brahma-pārṣadas

The second group consists of Brahmā with his retinue known as Brahma-pārṣadas and Brahma-pārṣadis. The list of Brahmā’s group begins with Viśvadevās.

Visvāndeva
Sādhyas
Brahmā
Prajāpati
Caturmukha
Parameṣṭin
Hiraṇyagarbha
Svayambhū
Brahmapārṣadāh
Brahma Parṣadis
Agni
Vāyu
Varuṇa
Sūrya
Chandramā
Nakṣatras
Jyotimṣi
Sadyojāta

13.6.4. Vyāhṛti-puruṣāh

The third group consists of Vyāhṛti-puruṣāh like Bhūh-puruṣah, Bhuvas-puruṣah, and Suvah-puruṣāh.

Bhūḥ-puruṣa
Bhūvaḥ-puruṣa
Suvaḥ-puruṣa

13.6.4. Saptalokas

The fourth group consists of the seven lokas (saptalokas).

Bhūḥ
Bhuvaḥ
Suvaḥ
Mahaḥ
Janaḥ
Tapaḥ
Satyam

13.6.5. Aṣṭhamūrti

The fifth group consists of the Aṣṭhamūrti forms of Śiva, and this is followed by the consort of each form of Śiva as Patnis, which is followed by the sons of these Aṣṭhamūrtis here each mūrti is accompanied by his wife and a son. These are called Rudras accompanied by Rudra-pārṣadas and Rudra-pārṣadi. The Aṣṭhamūrti form is listed which is followed by their consorts (patnī), and their sons. This is an interesting list because we find Śiva is generally accompanied by Umā and their son Skanda as Somāskanda. Also, as Uma Mahēśvara he is shown with Gaṇēśa and Skanda. In most of the Śiva temples in Tamiḻnāḍu, we find the main processional deity to be the Somāskanda (Śiva, Pārvati, and Skanda) while in some cases we find Śiva with Pārvati, Skanda and Gaṇēśa. In the great temple of Tañjāvūr, Rājarāja Cōḻa consecrated a bronze image of Mahāmēru-viṭaṅkar, which consisted of Śiva, Pārvati, Skanda, and Gaṇēśa. Also, in many Mātṛika groups, we find a child either carried in their hands or seated on their lap. This tradition can be now traced to the Bodhāyana sūtrā. We may also note that Viṣṇu is not portrayed with a child. It is only Śiva portrayed with a child. Also, when Śiva is portrayed as a hunter, Kirātamūrti, he is accompanied by Pārvati carrying the child in her hand. Śiva is portrayed as a full family group while Viṣṇu appears with his own consorts emphasising his bhoga character. But Śiva’s incarnation as a family emphasizes the jñāna aspect in his Dakṣiṇāmūrti form. Aṣṭhamūrtis:

Bhavāya dēva
Śarvāya dēva
Īśānāya dēva
Paśupate dēva
Rudrāya dēva
Ugrāyadēva
Bhīmāyadēva
Mahatēdēva

Aṣṭhamūrti Patnī:

Bhavasya dēvasya patnī
Śarvasyta dēvasya patnī
Īśānasya dēvāsya patnī
Paśuptē dēvasya patnī
Rudrasya dēvasya patnī
Ugrasya dēvadya patnī
Bhīma dēvasya patnī
Mahatē dēvasya patnī

Sons of Aṣṭhamūrtis:

Bhavasya dēvasya suta
Śarvasya dēvasya suta
Īśānasya dēvāsya suta
Paśupate dēvasya suta
Rudrasya dēvasya suta
Bhīmasya dēvadya suta
Ugrasya dēvasya suta
Mahatē dēvasya suta

13.6.6. Vighnēśvaras

The sixth that follows includes Vighnēśvaras, ten in number, accompanied by their pārṣadas and Vighna-pārṣhadis.

Vināyaka
Vīra
Sūra
Varada
Hastimukha
Vakratuṇḍa
Ekadanta
Lambodhara
Gaṇapati
Vignapārṣhadah
Vignapārṣhādis

13.6.7. Skandas

The seventh group consists of Skanda accompanied by their pārṣadas and pārṣadis. They are ten in number with the list starting with Sanatkumāra.

Sanatkumāra
Skanda
Indra
Ṣanmukha
Saṣṭhi
Visākha
Mahāsēna
Subrahmaṇya
Skandapārṣha

13.6.8. Navagrahas

Then the nine planets - Navagrahas.

Āditya
Soma
Aṅgāraka
Budhan
Bṛhaspati
Sukra
Sanaiscara
Rāhu
Ketu

13.6.9. Dvādaśa-nāmās

The next group is the twelve names of Viṣṇu called Dvādaśa-nāmās.

Kēśava
Nārāyaṇa
Mādhava
Gōvinda
Viṣṇu
Madhusūdana
Trivikrama
Vāmāna
Srīdharah
Hriṣīkesa
Padmanābha
Dāmōdhara

13.6.10. Devis

Then we have six Devis. The next list has Vainateya, the Garuda called the Viṣṇu Pārṣada. The list below is mainly of goddesses (which adds Garuḍa and the retinue of Viṣṇu with their consorts.

Śrīyam Dēvī
Saraswaṭi
Puṣṭi
Tuṣṭi
Viṣṇu
Vainateya (Garuda)
Viṣṇu pārṣadas (retinue of Viṣṇu)
Viṣṇupārṣadī (consorts of Viṣṇu’s retinue)

13.6.11. Yamas

The next group is that of Yamarāja and his gaṇas totaling eight with his retinue.

Yama
Yamarāja
Dharma
Dharmarāja
Nilam
Mrityu
Kaṇṭhaka
Chitra
Chitragupta
Vaivatapārṣadas
Vaivasvatapārṣadī

Bodhāyana’s list includes a set of names probably connected with death that were called the Vaivasvatas.

13.6.12. Dhanvantari

The twelfth group called the Dhanvantari-gaṇas is a peculiar one as it includes five gods and three goddesses. Dhanvantari is the physician of Devas. It is not known whether all in the group are physicians. A different group of eight names are given as Dhanvantari gaṇa, with their retinue and their consort who are gods and goddess of medicine.

Bhāradvāja
Gautama
Atri
Āṅgīrasah
Vidyā
Durgā
Jyotiṣa
Dhanvantri

At the end of these names, Bodhāyana mentions the retinues of these eight as Dhanvantara pārṣadas, Dhanvantara pārṣadi. We are therefore justified in taking the eight names as the physicians (marutuvas). If this suggestion is acceptable, then we find the names of these Ṛṣis may indicate different schools of physicians that were known then. The followers of Bodhāyana-dharma-sūtrā must worship all these devatās daily. These groups have taken their place in the temple sculptures as seen in the temples of Khajuraho or Kaliṅga. The performer should offer water with hands saying “I adore Rudra – Rudram tarpayāmi” and so on. I give names below as given in the text which should be followed by the utterance of the word “tarpayāmi”. In the end, I shall analyze its relation to temple worship. The worship is called “tarpaṇas”. So, with each name of the deity, the word tarpayāmi is added. It means I revere or please the god. Thus far, we have seen divinities.

13.6.13. Ṛṣis

The thirteenth group has a long list of Ṛṣis who were mortals, the composers of mantras, and the Vedic hymns. This list includes Ṛṣi-putras and their grandsons. After the composers of the mantras, the Sūtrakāras are mentioned. At the end, Praṇavam - the sound, Vyāhṛitis, Chandas, Vedas, Itihāsa Purāṇas, all human beings and animals are mentioned. The list interestingly includes Atharvaśiras, an Upaniṣad which is probably one of the oldest to be given a special place. Bodhāyana gives a long list of Ṛṣis who include celestial and terrestrial Ṛṣis. Ṛṣis:

Paramariṣis
Brahmariṣi
Devariṣis
Rājariṣis
Srutariṣis
Janariṣis
Tapariṣis
Satyariṣis
Kāntariṣis
Ṛṣika
Ṛṣipatni
Ṛṣiputras
Ṛṣipautras

Evidently, all the Ṛṣis were married. Their sons and grandsons are also mentioned.

13.6.14. Sūtrakāras

This list is followed by the list of Sūtrakāras. These Ṛṣis who codified dharma-sūtras were very early Dharma Sūtrakāras. They all should be assigned to a period earlier than Bodhāyana. While Vyāsa is also the author of the Mahābhārata, Vasiṣṭa is associated with the Rāmāyaṇa.

Kānvam Bodhāyanam
Āpastambam Śūtrakāra
Satyāṣādam Hiraṇyakeśin
Vājasaneyam Yājñavalkya
Āśvalāyanam Śaunakam
Vyāsa
Vasiṣṭha

13.6.15. Phonetics and Poetry

Then the list of Bodhāyana continues with the works connected with phonetics and poetry. The following is the list which begins with the primordial sound “Praṇavam Om” followed by Vyāhṛitis:

Praṇavam
Vyāhṛitis (Bhūh, Bhuvas, Suvah)
Sāvitrī
Gāyatrī
Chandas
Ṛgvedam
Yajurvedam
Sāmavedam
Atharva Vēdam
Atharvaśiras
Sarvavedam
Itihāsa Purāṇa
Sarvajanā Tarpayāmi
Sarvabhūta Tarparyāmi

The text concludes by saluting the result of penance, how it originated, and the knowledge of it. Thus, it is a text of the Hindu tradition. Bodhāyana represents the culmination of a universal system.

13.7. Kāṭhaka-gṛhya-sūtra

According to the Kāṭhaka-gṛhya-śūtra, the Devatās worshipped during marriage rites was practiced widely in the Kashmir region. The newlywed couple should worship the following Devatās while going around the sacrificial fire in the following order.

Agni
Soma
Varuṇa
Mitra
Indra
Bṛhaspati
Skanda
Rudra
Vātsīputra
Bhaga
Bhaga-nakshtrāni
Kālī
Saṣṭhi
Bhadrakālī
Pūṣan
Tvaṣtā
Mahiṣki

These are worshipped with gandha āhutis:

Indrāṇi
Vāruṇāni
Gandharvāni
Udakāni
Agnih jīvaputrah
Prājāpati
Mahārājaputra
Skandan
Aryamā
Bhaga
Prajānaka

These deities are worshipped with sthālipāka (a dish of barley or rice boiled in milk used as an oblation) by the bridegroom. Jīvaputra stands for Agni, the commentator states Jīva stands for prāṇah and putra means Vāyuh who protects him. Skanda is called Mahārājah. It may be seen that in temple worship all these deities are invoked and worshipped barring a few. Some deities such as Indrāṇi and Vāruṇāni are well known in North India. The goddesses Gandharvāṇi and Udakāṇi are not known. The name Māhiṣki seems to refer to Mahiṣāsuramardini or Durgā. It is also interesting to note Kālī and Bhadrakālī are shown as two different deities. This text also refers to Devatāyatana (an abode of gods), the temple, in different contexts. Before the marriage rites, the bride is given a special bath in which a small branch of a tree is placed, and she is bathed with a Sahasradhārā (water stream from a vessel with holes) with a prayer, “whatever Alakṣmi is with you either from the mother’s side or father’s side or from your friends or by nature may disappear with this (Tiṣya - a constellation, Bṛhaspati - planet Jupiter)”. This seems to be an expiatory rite. After this rite, the branch is to be thrown into a river or sacred Devatāyatana. Evidently, the sacred temple was known, and it was considered equal to Tīrtha as this is a pre Aśokan text it is clearly a pointer to the existence of temples much earlier than Aśoka 3rd century BCE.

13.8. Dharma Sūtras in Copper Plates

Karantai plates

Āgastya
Āgnivesya
Āpastamba
Āsvavalāyana
Bhāradvāja
Drāhyāyana
Gautama
Jaimini
Kātyāyana
Parāsara
Satyāṣāda
Viśvāmitra

13.9. Gotra in Karandai List

Āgastya
Āgnivesya
Ālantana
Āṅgīrasah
Ara
Ārita
Ātreya
Aupamanyu
Bhāradvāja
Devarāta
Gārgi
Gautama
Kālāyasa
Kānva
Kāśyapa
Kauṇḍinya
Kauśika
Kunḍina
Kutsa
Lohita
Māḍala
Māmajala
Mudgala
Nitūtana
Parāsara
Rātītara
Sālāvata
Sāṇḍilya
Saṅkriti
Sārangi Mitra
Saṭa
Srāviṣṭa
Vāsiṣṭha
Vatsa
Vātūla
Viśvāmitra

13.10. Nārada Dharma

Nārāda gives the following divisions as the basic 8 divisions of legal administration in Nārada Dharma Sūtra.

Deposits
Concerns among partners
Abstraction of Gift
Breach of promised Obedience
Nonpayment of wages
Sale without ownership
Non delivery of a commodity sold
Recession of purchase
Breach of order
Contests about boundaries
The duties of Man and Wife
The Law of inheritance
Violence
Abuse and Assault
Gambling
Miscellaneous disputes

Five members of the judicial committee (Aimperu Kuḻu):

King
Govt official
Assessor
Law book
Accountant

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