chap09 chapter_08.html chapter_09.html chapter_10.html Tamil Nadu, The Land of the Vedas R. Nagaswamy 9.VEDIC COLLEGES
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We have evidence of the regular setting up of Vedic colleges from the time of Rājarāja the Great. The following list may be seen.
  • Rājarāja at Āṉūr, 1000 CE
  • Rājarāja at Eṇṇāyiram, 1018 CE
  • Rājēndra I, Puttūr, Tribhuvana Mahādevī Catur-vedi-maṅgalam, 1020 CE
  • Rājādhirāja I, Tribhuvana, 1048 CE
  • Rājēndra II, Tiruvindalūr, 1060 CE
  • Vīrarājēndra, Tirumukkūdal1065 CE
Beginning with Rājarāja, four successive ruling monarchs, established Vedic colleges named after them. It is an illustrious example of direct royal patronage in the history of India. In all these colleges, the three Vedas, Ṛg, Yajur (with an emphasis on Taittirīya samhitā), and Sāma (both Chandoga Sāma and Talavakāra Sāma) Vedas were included without fail. In one college, Atharva Veda was also included. In four colleges, Vedānta and Mīmāṁsā were invariably included. The exponent of Vedānta was the highest paid among the teachers, which shows that the Cōḻas were great Vedantins. Although, at the worldly level, they were the followers of the Smārta tradition, worshiping all gods and goddesses with great devotion. The two schools of Mīmāṁsā, namely the Kumarila Bhaṭṭa school and the Prābhākara school, were included in colleges established by all four kings. The other subjects of importance taught were Sanskrit, Vyākaraṇa, and Pāṇini’s Aṣṭhādhyāyī, mentioned by name in Rājarāja’s college at Āṉūr. This also indicates that Pāṇini’s Vyākaraṇa was of the Vedic tradition. Besides Aṣṭhādhyāyī, the simpler version of Sanskrit grammar named Rūpāvatāra was included in all the four colleges. This must be viewed in the light of Dharma Śāstra, especially of Manu Smṛti, which was an important subject in all these colleges. It is well known that the Cōḻas organized one of the most efficient judicial systems in the country, and they did not fail to mention the role of Manu in their royal praśastīs. Interpreting legal text required a precise understanding of the terms in Sanskrit. Important gṛyasūtrā such as the Baudhāyana, the Drāhyāyana, and the like were also the subjects of study. Last but not least were the expositions of the epics, the Mahābhāratam and the Rāmāyaṇam, which were included in all schools. It is also important to note that Vedānta of Śaṅkarā’s school, mentioned as bhagavad pādīyam śārīraka-mīmāṁsā bhāṣyam with a vārtikā, was being expounded in the time of Rājarāja at Cōḻamahādevī. This was a village situated near Puttūr where a Vedic college was established after the queen of Rājarāja by his son Rājēndra. It is also interesting to note that the Vaiṣṇava text Vaikhānasa Āgama was expounded in Tribhuvanai. It should be viewed in the light of the presence of Vaikhānasas in all the Viṣṇu temples of Tamiḻnāḍu. We do not find either the Pāñcarātrins’ as priests or the Pāñcarātra Āgamas mentioned in records till the middle of the 11th century. I have shown in my studies on Rāmānuja1 that the earliest reference to Rāmānuja bhāṣya in temple inscriptions appears in the 14th century in the temple of Varadarāja at Kāñcipuram. The first reference to Pāñcarātra appears in the reign of Vīarājēndra, in the Tirumukkūdal perumāḷ temple. We may examine the position of Vedānta in Tamiḻnāḍu from the 14th century in the sequence.

9.1. Āṉūr Vedic College

 Āṉūr in Chinglepet district enters the history of Tamiḻnāḍu in the book on the Cōḻas by the famous Prof. K.A. Nilakaṇṭa Śastri who mentions it as a Vedic village. Rājarāja I, established a Vedic college here to teach the Vedas, Mīmāṁsā, Pāṇini’s Vyākaraṇa of Aṣṭhādhyāyī, and provided land as Bhaṭṭa vṛtti. The village can be reached either from the famous pilgrim centre, Tiruk-kaḻuk-kuṉṟam, or from Chinglepet. From Tiruk-kaḻuk-kuṉṟam it is about 14 km on the road to Madhurāntakam up to Valliyūr and from there a diversion to Āniyūr. The road from Tiruk-kaḻuk-kunṟam to Valliyūr is a good metal road and the last lap is a country road. From Chinglepet one can go via Kalattūr to this village a distance of about 14 km. The village situated near the river Veḷḷārū is a small settlement with three important temples a Śiva temple, a Perumāḷ temple, and a Subrahmaṇya temple. It is evident from the location of these temples that the Viṣṇu temple, now called Veda Nārāyaṇa Perumāḷ temple was situated in the centre of the village, while the Śiva temple was towards the northeast and the Subrahmaṇya temple near the Viṣṇu temple. All the temples face east. The earliest inscription found in the village so far is that of the Pallava ruler Kampavarmaṉ dated circa 900, but the surviving antiquities of the village seem to take the origin of the village to two hundred years earlier. The record of Kampavarmaṉ found on the western base of the Śiva temple now called the Aśtra-purīśvara, calls this village “Tiru-vambaṉ-kāḍu”, in “Āniyūr”. The village was called by different names as Āniyūr, Ādiyūr, Satyāśraya-caturvedi-maṅgalam, etc., situated in Kāliyūr in Jayam-koṇḍa Cōḻamaṇḍalam. When Rājarāja Cōḻa defeated the Chālukya ruler Satyāśraya, he assumed the title “Satyāśraya kula-kāla” and established a Brāhmin colony here named after his title, “Satyāśraya-kula-kāla-caturvedi-maṅgalam”. This title is mentioned in a record of Kulōttuṅga Cōḻa around 1125. Now it is included in the Tiruk-kaḻuk-kuṉṟam circle of the Kāñcīpuram district. As mentioned earlier, the earliest relic in the village is the Śiva temple. The region in which it was situated was called Tiruvambaṉ-kāḍu. Ambu in Tamiḻ means arrow so it seems to have been called “Tiru-ambuk-Kāḍu” which has given it the modern Sanskrit name Tiru-Aśtra-purīśvara. There are two interesting sculptures here (Pl.9) one a Gaṇapati embedded into the brick wall but not in its original position. However, it is undoubtedly a unique sculpture of the Pallavas assignable to the 6th century. The broad ears of the Elephant god and the objects held in the front arms, the right holding a modaka and the left holding a broken tusk are indicative of its rare form. Further, its trunk is turned to the right and hence it is known as the Valampuri Gaṇēśa. It is seated in vīrāsana and beneath it is the tiny rat. Further, a few feet is an archaic image of Jyeṣṭhādēvi. The goddess is seated in the middle, to the right of her is the bovine-headed son, and to her left is her daughter. This seems to have been the Parivāra-dēvatā either of the village or the temple. It is also indisputably a Pallava image and of the period of the rare Gaṇēśa. These two sculptures indicate the village was in existence from the 7th century or even earlier. The base of the main Śiva temple carries an inscription of the Pallava Kō Vijaya Kampavarmaṉ. Except for some damage, it seems to have survived in its original form. The record is in the Jagati (base of the temple) and points to the originality of the temple, yet some of the slabs of the Jagati carry disjointed and fragmentary records (Pl.9.1.d). The temple has been rebuilt from the base by reusing the old stones. The wall up to the ceiling is severely plain without many carvings. The usual niches are in position, but except for Dakṣiṇāmūrti, all of the other images, including that of Gaṇēśa, are missing. At the back, there is a socket showing it originally had an image of Viṣṇu, which is also missing. An image of Brahmā that ought to have been in the north koṣṭha is also missing. The last one, which houses Durgā, has an image of that deity but is a later image, perhaps of the 14th century, when the front hall and its preceding maṇḍapa were added. However, the Dakṣiṇāmūrti on the main south niche is a superb Pallava work of about the end of the 9th century. Evidently, the present temple, which bears the inscription of Pallava Kampavarmaṉ, was rebuilt at his time. As the temple remains currently closed for renovation, nothing could be seen. None of the other loose sculptures on the premises, like the Gaṇapathy, could fit the niche. It is possible that there existed a stone temple of the 7th century, which was rebuilt in the time of Kampavarmaṉ. A hall and a front maṇḍapa have been built in the 14th century. A similar hall and front maṇḍapa were built in the Viṣṇu temple at the same time, indicating that the village was flourishing up to the 14th century. The vimāna superstructure of the Śiva temple is built of brick and mortar and seems to belong to the 14th century, as the bricks indicate. The inscriptions in the temple provide important information about the history of Vedic studies in Tamiḻnāḍu. In the 14th year of Rājarāja, in 1000 CE, the village Assembly reclaimed 12 paṭṭis of land in the village. With the proceeds of the sale of cultivated paddy from that land, a regular recitation was arranged of all the Vedas mainly Ṛg, Yajus, and Sāma, especially the Chandoga Sāmaveda in the Ambalam central hall. The inscription in a damaged condition is found in the central Viṣṇu temple. All tax exemptions came into effect from a particular month for providing finance for the recitation of Chandoga Sāma and all other Vedas by an expert. Further details are lost. Anyone who raised an objection or joined such obstructionists would be fined 45 kaḻañcu of gold the Sabhā. Another fragmentary record refers to a gift of land with all tax exemptions to musicians to play two kālams pipes etc., during the morning waking ceremony and three times during the day (sandhi). The names of two of the musicians that have survived are Śivaṉ perumāḷ and Iśāna. Another fragment refers to the provision of land for an expert who would teach all the Vedas and competently expound twenty chapters of Mīmāṁsā (16 chapters of Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā and 4 chapters of Uttara-Mīmāṁsā, i.e., the Vedānta). The provision was made by the great Assembly (Mahāsabhā) of the village. It also mentions that the candidate would have to be able to supervise the teaching to equip the students up to the title of “vidyālaṁkāra”. Unfortunately, the record is damaged beyond these points. However, words like Vidyālaṁkāra and Kaṇkāni (supervising the teaching) are clear. More teachers were appointed to teach recitation of all the Vedas with emphasis on teaching the meanings of all the Śāstras, including the 20 chapters of the Mīmāṁsā text. Evidently, this seems to have been a highly advanced college in Vedic studies. Another fragment dated in the 21st regnal year (1006) of Rājarāja records that provisions were made for offering food to god Dēvēndra who stood as “The Lord of our village”. It is not clear whether the expression “nammūr deyvamāy ninṟāṉ Dēvēndra”, refers to the Lord Viṣṇu who was considered the presiding deity of the village or whether there was a temple for Indra in the village. From inscriptions, we know both Viṣṇu and Indra were the protectors of Vedic learning. Another fragment refers to the provision of food at night for an exponent of some Śāstra. There is also a reference to all the Vedas and expounding their meanings. It appears several new posts were created for teaching additional Vedic subjects in this village. Another fragment refers to Bhaṭṭa vṛtti of the village (nammūr bhaṭṭa vṛtti). This seems to be another grant for exponents of Śāstras. Another fragment relates to provisions of food for the god Subrahmaṇya of the village and also refers to expert teachers in both Vyākaraṇam and Aṣṭādhyāyī (of Pāṇini). Though all these are fragmentary, they give enough information of great patronage for advanced studies of the Vedas, Śāstras, Vyākaraṇam and Mīmāṁsā. This shows that the year 1000 CE, under Rājarāja, saw the height of encouragement for Vedic studies which made him ensure that his son Rājēndra I studied the Vedas during his training. It also shows that Śaṅkara Bhāṣya on Śārīraka-Mīmāṁsā śāstra was very popular at Cōḻamahādevi near Tañjāvūr during Rājarāja’s time (See Chapter 14).
Āṉūr Śrī Aśtra-purīśvara Temple
Pl.9.1.a. Śrī Aśtra-purīśvara Temple, Āṉūr village near Chinglepaṭṭu built during the 7th century CE. When Rājarāja Cōḻa conquered the Chālukya ruler Satyāśraya, he assumed the title “Satyāśraya kula-kāla” and established a Brahmin colony here named after the title, “Satyāśraya-kula-kāla-caturvedi-maṅgalam” (Photo by Rajendran Ganesan, 2012).
Āṉūr Valmpuri Gaṇeśa
Pl.9.1.b. Two sculptures in Āṉūr Śiva temple, Pallava 6th century CE. Early image of Valmpuri Gaṇeśa. (Photo by Rajendran Ganesan, 2012).
Āṉūr Dakṣiṇāmūrthy
Pl.9.1.c.. Early image of Dakṣiṇāmūrthy in Āṉūr, Pallava 9th century CE. Right (Photo by Rajendran Ganesan).
Āṉūr Durga
Pl.9.1.c.. An image of Viṣṇu Durgā in Kōṣṭham in Āṉūr, Pallava 9th century CE (Photo by Rajendran Ganesan).
Āṉūr Jyeṣṭha Devi with Son and Daughter
Pl.9.1.d. Āṉūr Śiva temple, Pallava 6th century CE. An archaic image of Jyeṣṭhādēvi with the goddess seated in the middle and the right with the bovine headed son and the left her daughter. (Photo by Rajendran Ganesan, 2012).
Āṉūr Inscriptions
Pl.9.1.e. The earliest inscription found in the Āṉūr village so far is that of the Pallava ruler Kampavarmaṉ dated circa 900. The surviving antiquities of the village seem take the origin of the village two hundred years earlier. The record of Kampavarmaṉ found on the western base of the Śiva temple calls this village “Tiru vambaṉ-kāḍu” (Photo by Rajendran Ganesan).

9.2. Eṇṇāyiram Vedic College

 Eṇṇāyiram is a village in South Arcot district, in Villuppuram taluk. The village was a Brahmadēya - Brāhmins settlement established as “Rājarāja-caturvedi-maṅgalam” after the name of Rājarāja Cōḻa I, the builder of the Great Temple of Tañjāvūr. This village is therefore called Brahmadēsam. It has a Viṣṇu temple in the centre of the village called Rājarāja Viṇṇagar (Rājarāja Viṣṇu-graham). The main deity inside the sanctum is Narasiṁha, called Mahā-ghora-svarūpi. There are four types of Narasiṁha mūrti images that could be installed for worship, namely Bhoga-mūrti, Yoga-mūrti, Ghorā-mūrti (Vīra-mūrti) and Ābhicārika-mūrtis. In this case, it was the Ghora-mūrti that was installed, an extremely ferocious form that would confer unimaginable victories. In the record it is called Rājēndra Cōḻa Mahā-ghora-mūrti. True to its nature the deity conferred the greatest victory on Rājēndra who could conquer territories up to the Gangetic plains. The grateful Rājēndra brought the waters of the Gaṅga (carried in kudams pots), on the heads of the vanquished kings, to this temple. These kudams were placed before the deity which was then worshipped. இவ்வூரில் உடையார் இராஜேந்திரசோழதவர் உத்தராபத பூபதியரை ஜெயிவித்தருளி யுத்தோத்ஸவ விபவத்தால் கங்காக்ரஹம் பண்ணியருளின கங்கைகொண்ட சோழன் என்னும் நாமத்தால் இத்திருமுற்றத்தில் வைத்தருளின உத்தமாக்ரம். ivvūril uṭaiyār irājēntiracōḻatavar uttarāpata pūpatiyarai jeyivittaruḷi yuttōtsava vipavattāl kaṅkākraham paṇṇiyaruḷiṉa kaṅkaikoṇṭa cōḻaṉ eṉṉum nāmattāl ittirumuṟṟattil vaittaruḷiṉa uttamākram. In memory of the unequaled victory, Rājēndra worshipped the “Mahā-ghora Narasiṁha” with the establishment of a great Vedic college in the village (ARE 333 of 1917). All the teachers and students were regularly provided with meals in the temple yard in perpetuity, for which Rājēndra made a huge gift of land establishing two special cultivators’ villages Pavitra-māṇikka-nallūr, and Puruṣottama-nallūr. The revenue authorities were prohibited by Rājēndra from collecting most of the taxes barring a few, from these two villages. It is by this fiat that Rājēndra orders the constitution of a Vedic college for 270 students which consisted of:-
CategoryNumber
Ṛg Veda75
Yajur Veda75
Vājasanēyam (Śukla Yajurveda)20
Atharva Veda10
Chandogasāma (Veda)20
Talavakārasāma (Veda)20
Bodhāyaniya, Gṛhyakalpa, and Kāṭaka10
Rūpāvatāra (grammar)40
Total number of students270
The 270 students mentioned above were full-time and were registered for the full courses. There were in addition part-time students who could also study subjects in parts, which included more subjects than the above regular courses. Such students were called Apūrvikaḷ and Rājēndra made provision for 70 such students and 21 additional faculties. The following were the subjects and number of teachers.
  1. Vyākaraṇa - 25 students and 1 teacher
  2. Prābhākara-Mīmāṁsā - 35 students and 1 teacher
  3. Ṛg Veda - 60 students and 3 teachers
  4. Taittirīya Yajur Veda - 10 students and 3 teachers
  5. Chandoga sāma Veda - 20 students and 1 teacher
  6. Vājasaineya ŚuklaYajurveda Veda- 10 students and 1 teacher
  7. Talavakāra Sāma Veda - 10 students and 1 teacher
  8. Baudhāyanīyam - 10 students and 1 teacher
  9. Satyāṣādam - 10 students and 1 teacher
  10. Apūrvam -10 students and 1 teacher
  11. Vedāntam -10 students and 1 teacher
  12. Mīmāṁsā - 10 students and 1 teacher
  13. Vyākaraṇam Aṣṭhādyāyī - 10 students and 1 teacher
  14. Rūpāvatāram - 10 students and 1 teacher
  15. Manuśāstri - 10 students and 1 teacher
  16. Vaikhānasa Śāstram - 10 students and 1teacher
  17. Rāmāyaṇa and Bhārata - 10 students and 1 teacher
 All together, provision was made for teaching 340 students. It is important to note that in addition to regulars, an optional provision was made to teach subjects chapterwise, which is like the modern semester system. The students could attend the chapters they could master. For example, grammar was taught in eight chapters – Aṣṭhādyāyī. Obviously, it was the Aṣṭhādyāyī of Pāṇini. Mīmāṁsā was taught in 12 chapters, evidently the Pūrva-Mīmāṁsa. The teachers were provided emoluments in kinds of paddy calculated per diem and additional cash in gold. Similarly, the students were also paid in cash in addition to paddy. The quantum was calculated at the rate of advanced subjects for which one kaḻañcu of gold was paid per month, while half kaḻañcu was paid for the lighter subjects. The students were paid uniformly half a kaḻañcu per month. It may be noted that all these studies required a teacher to impart knowledge. Rājēndra saw to it that the sounds of Vedic chants constantly reverberated in the temple, and so attached the college as an adjunct of the temple. It is a custom to this day that when the food offering is made to the deity or ancestors, Vedic Brāhmins are fed by a system called Uttamāgram. The Brāhmins, while so eating, recite some part of the Vedas. Rājēndra arranged for a great offering called Uttamāgram in the temple in honour of these recitations by teachers and students to commemorate his victory over the Gangetic plains. There is another point of interest in this provision. Rājēndra arranged for the recitation of the Tiruvāymoḻi of Nammāḻvār by four reciters during the regular worship. One may wonder why he did not include the teachings of Tiruvāymoḻi in the same college of Vedas and Śāstras. It must be remembered that the Divya Prabhandam group of songs meant to be sung and danced were to be taught in a hereditary manner as fine arts. In those days, this was reserved for families who had the privilege to propagate the art as a profession within their family members. So, he allowed them to keep their privilege but saw to it that it was a part of the worship. It must also be noted that this system of reciting Tiruvāymoḻi was a part of Temple culture even before the time of Rāmānuja. The other most important point that deserves notice is that in all these colleges, teaching of the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata was invariably included. The reason for this inclusion is simple. In the study of Vedāntic subjects, one of the important questions was whether Śūdras were eligible for mokṣa. Sage Veda Vyāsa raises this question in his Brahma Sūtrās, which is called “Apa-śūdrādhikaraṇam”. The Advaita Ācārya Śaṅkara Bhagavad pādāḷ has answered this question. He said that the Smṛtikārās of the Dharma Śāstras declared that as mokṣa is jñāna phala prāpti, all are capable of achieving mokṣa by listening to Itihāsa and Purāṇās. He also said it was the duty of the Brāhmins to expound the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata, and the Purāṇās to all. The provisions for the study of the Itihāsas were considered the duty of the Brāhmaṇas. The Vedic scholars were equipped greatly for this purpose. The study of the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata by the Vedic Brāhmins is well attested in Tamiḻnāḍu even in the Saṅgam age. It was this tradition that Rājēndra took great care in continuing by providing for the systematic study of the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata. The epics were included as special subjects in Vedic colleges. Other endowments are significant for religious history, which include: Provisions for daily worship (nitya pūjā) and recitation of Tiruvaymoḻi by four reciters. This offering was with a specific prayer that “Śrī Rājēndra Cōḻa thiru bujaṅgaḷ varddhikka” (for the growing strength of Rājēndra’s shoulders). This is for all-round victory, especially in war. Next, provisions were also made for a maṭha attached to the temple where 25 Śrī Vaiṣṇavas were to be fed daily. Thirdly, provisions were made for holding a festival for seven days, in the months Āni, when the star was Anuṣa. This included the flag hoisting ceremony and the deity taken around the village in procession on a chariot - grāma pradakṣiṇamāka thiruttēr varavum. This procession is a re-enactment of the festival of the king’s victory - “uttarāpada, bhūpatiyarai jayittaruli, yuddha vibhavotsavam āka” says the inscription. And finally, it is to celebrate this victory that the Vedic college was established to teach Vedic subjects and also feed the teachers and Brahmacāris. This historic information deserves better appreciation.

9.3. Vedic College at Puttūr (Karandai)

 Rājēndra Cōḻa’s royal gift to 1080 Vedic Brāhmaṇas near Tañjāvūr Rājēndra Cōḻa I, the son and successor of Rājarāja I, created a new village named Tribhuvana-Mahādevī-caturvedi-maṅgalam near Tañjāvūr in the year 1020 CE, and gifted it to one thousand eighty (ten times 108) Vedic Brāhmaṇas, calling them caturvedins. For this purpose, he selected fifty villages situated adjacent to each other and clubbed them together into one village under the new name Tribhuvana-Mahādevī-caturvedi-maṅgalam. The villages so gifted were mostly agricultural villages bearing original names like Nallūr, Ūr, Pādi, Lekhyacci, etc. These were technical names, Nallūr standing for cultivators’ village, Ūr where people of all castes lived, Pādi where cattle rearers also known as konārs lived, and Kuṟucci or dry lands. A total of 3135 vēlis of land were selected in these villages out of which 620 vēlis were excluded, which were common land such as temples, temple yards, temple tanks, house sites, village common lands called Nattams, pathways, irrigation canals, cremation grounds, etc. The lands that were originally owned as private holdings (Kuḍi) were also excluded. Thus, lands measuring 2115 vēlis so gifted were those on which the king had rights. The lands were divided into equal shares and each Brāhmaṇa was given one share. Besides, there were several other service holders like weavers, potters, doctors, washermen, drummers, musicians, etc., who were also given shares from the proceeds with the same rights. These lands were not tax-free. That meant that the donees would have to pay annual taxes to the king, but as a new colony, the taxes were imposed in a graded manner. They were expected to pay 1/4th the tax in the first year after the gift, 1/2 the tax the second year, 3/4th in the third year, and from the fourth year onwards they had to pay the full tax, thereby giving the new colonies a concession in their initial years to undertake any urban development that was needed. This also is a perfect example of how a new village was formed in the Cōḻa times. The lands that had tax exemptions earlier were allowed to retain their exemptions and were not taxed. The temple and common lands that were also measured accurately were completely exempt from taxes. From a study of over 1000 families of Vedic scholars, we find enormous information about the Vedic studies in Tañjāvūr in the tenth century. Out of these 1000 families, most of them had a title connected with their qualifications. The four important qualifications listed for most of them are: 1) Daśapuriyaṉ 2) Sāhaśraṉ 3) Bhaṭṭaṉ and 4) Krama-vittaṉ. There were nearly 900 persons with these qualifications and were named after the yajñas, Vedic sacrifices performed by them or for their mastery of the Vedas and Vedāṅgas, which they expounded and the level of their learning as Krama-vittaṉs (having studied up to the stage of Krama) was the criteria upon which they were deemed qualified. Among the others, we find Somayājis and Sarva-kratu-yājis. As for the rest, there were hardly a dozen, highly learned men whose titles are not mentioned. Evidently, these men were highly respected and chosen for their study and practice. It is also important to know that their native place, names, gōtram, sūtrās, and achievements are invariably mentioned for all the 1000 members. A study of the gōtras appears as a separate list attached to this article. It also shows that the Cōḻas took care to select only well-versed scholars to settle them in these villages. Besides this village, there were a few other places where Rājēndra established new colonies of Vedic Brāhmins and made provision for teaching the Vedas. A remarkable piece of information available in the Karandai copper plates has escaped the attention of scholars. This royal order of Rājēndra says that he learned the Vedas and Śāstras at a young age in addition to training in horse and elephant riding, and use of all weaponry and mastering Rājanīthi. It is evident that he had rigorous training at a young age under his father Rājarāja and was well equipped to take up the rule. He was also trained to continue the tradition established by his father mentioned in this document. That shows the reason for his zeal in patronizing the Vedas and Vedic studies. There were three important reasons for establishing this Vedic village which he mentioned in the record. First, this established village was named after his mother whose life he wanted to commemorate, and thus he followed the Vedic dictum of Mātṛ devo bhava. नाम्ना मातु स्त्रिभुवनमहादेव्यभिख्या अग्रहारम् तंकावेरीसरससलिलस्यन्दसन्दोहसारम् ग्रामैरन्यैस्समुदितम् असौराजराजस्यसूनुर्व् वेदोद्घोषैर्पतिरिदत्संविश्वसारम्व्यदत्त सबालएवाखिलवेदशास्त्रवित्तुरंगरथाधिरोहणे। क्तश्रमशशस्त्रवित्अस्त्रकोवित्गुणैर्ुदारैप्रकृतिप्रियोभवत्।। nāmnā mātu stribhuvanamahādevyabhikhyā agrahāram taṃkāverīsarasasalilasyandasandohasāram grāmairanyaissamuditam asaurājarājasyasūnurv vedodghoṣairpatiridatsaṃviśvasāramvyadatta sabālaevākhilavedaśāstravitturaṃgarathādhirohaṇe| ktaśramaśaśastravitastrakovitguṇair्udāraiprakṛtipriyobhavat|| It is clear from the above that Rājēndra learned the Vedas and the Śāstras in his boyhood. This is important information that shows that Rājarājā, his father wanted his son should be well-versed in the Vedas. This copper plate was issued in the eighth ruling year of Rājēndra which was 1020 CE. The plate also recollects Bhagīrata’s penance to accomplish Gaṅgāvatāra (the descent of Gaṅgā), Rājēndra proved to be one better by bringing the Gaṅgā carried on the heads of defeated kings and thus attaining the same fame as the legendary Bhagīrata who brought the great sacred waters of the Gaṅgā to his own country. The poetic description of Gaṅgā needs to be understood. “Bhagīrata required the head of Śiva to bring the Gaṅgā to earth and that too to wash off the ashes of his ancestors. This king made it easy to bring the sacred Gaṅgā on the heads of earthly kings from the banks of that region and brought it to purify all people of his country. Bhagīrata had to undertake penance to get the Gaṅgā, but this king got it by his own prowess and victory. This is no doubt a wonder.” This reference to Bhagīrata falls under an alaṅkāra atisayokti. गंगावतारनिचमव्रतगर्जितांगम्शृत्वाभगीरतंअनल्पगुणस्वयंयः ततीरवर्तिनृपमौलिभिरेवतांस्वांभूमिंसमान्यदशेषनृपप्रदीप: गंगांतुंगपयोधरांनीत्वास्वदेशंप्रति। प्राप्तश्रीसभगीरतंव्यरचयतअकृश्राप्तगंगाजल;़।। gaṃgāvatāranicamavratagarjitāṃgamśṛtvābhagīrataṃanalpaguṇasvayaṃyaḥ| tatīravartinṛpamaulibhirevatāṃsvāṃbhūmiṃsamānyadaśeṣanṛpapradīpa: || gaṃgāṃtuṃgapayodharāṃnītvāsvadeśaṃprati| prāptaśrīsabhagīrataṃvyaracayataakṛśrāptagaṃgājala;़|| About the Vedic Brāhmaṇas who were settled in the village on the banks of River Kāvēri, the king says they were verily the gods on earth. They had courage, steadfastness, and great penance, unparalleled in the mastery of all Vedas and their own richness of mind. Their homes were rich in the wealth of the Śāstras and they were the purest of the purified owing to their knowledge. तैर्येस्तैर्येतपसिमहसिप्रस्रयेसाद्वितीया; सर्वस्वान्वेदान्स्वमतिविभवान्स्वल्पम्आमन्यमानान्। शास्त्रात्तश्रीविहरणगृहाभावनाभावनानाम् नित्यंयत्रस्वमतिरतिंकुर्वतेभूमिदेवा; ।। tairyestairyetapasimahasiprasrayesādvitīyā; sarvasvānvedānsvamativibhavānsvalpamāmanyamānān| śāstrāttaśrīviharaṇagṛhābhāvanābhāvanānām nityaṃyatrasvamatiratiṃkurvatebhūmidevā; || The Plate also gives important information that the king of Kambōja country sent as a gift the chariot with which he conquered many of his own enemies. By sending this present he sought to preserve his own fame and the friendship of the Cōḻa Emperor and his country. So, the composer of this copper plate states Emperor Rājēndra is best suited to be honoured with epic poetry, kāvya. कांबोजराजोरिपुराजसेनाजैत्रेणयेनाजयत्आहवेषु। तंप्राहिणोत्प्रार्थितमित्रभाव: यस्मैरथंरक्षितुंआत्मलक्ष्मीम्।। सबालएवाखिलवेदशास्त्रवित्तुरंगरथाधिरोहणे। कृतश्रमशशस्त्रवितस्त्रकोवित्गुणैरुदारैप्रकृतिप्रियोभवत्॥ kāṃbojarājoripurājasenājaitreṇayenājayatāhaveṣu| taṃprāhiṇotprārthitamitrabhāva: yasmairathaṃrakṣituṃātmalakṣmīm|| sabālaevākhilavedaśāstravitturaṃgarathādhirohaṇe| kṛtaśramaśaśastravitastrakovitguṇairudāraiprakṛtipriyobhavat|| What is the purpose of granting such villages to Vedic Brāhmaṇas? The gift of Brahmadēyas is misinterpreted by some scholars. This concluding part of the grant makes the purpose clear. The Brāhmaṇas were expected to perform different kinds of Vedic sacrifices in the village and thereby ensure everybody benefitted. Secondly, the Brāhmaṇas were to advise the people with an impartial mind about good precepts in their day-to-day transactions. This was the main function expected of the Vedic Brāhmaṇas. It indicates a combination of faith and responsibility. 1) There was faith that the performance of Vedic sacrifices was for the spiritual upliftment of all the people of the country. This is the religious path for most of the Vedic sacrifices, concluded with a prayer for the happiness of the two-footed and four-footed beings. The two-footed refers to human beings and four-footed includes animals, birds, insects, and reptiles. In short, they were for the benefit of all living beings (śānti for dvipādcatuṣpād - द्विपाद्चतुष्पाद्). 2) It was the profession and duty of the Brāhmaṇas to render impartial knowledge and teach good conduct to all sections of society. As a class, they were devoted to the study of treatises, especially human behaviour. It was their responsibility to teach good conduct. As the Vedic Śāstras contain the teaching of dharma or legal life, it was the duty of Brāhmaṇas to do their work impartially. Creating Vedic villages was especially meant to make impartial legal knowledge available within the reach of a vast population. Just as it was the duty of cowherds, the Koṇārs, to rear cattle wealth and the merchants to improve wealth by honest trade, the cultivators, to produce food by cultivation so also it was the duty of the Vedic Brāhmaṇas to pray for the entire society and render impartial legal advice in day-to-day transactions.

9.4. Puttūr Tribhuvana Mādevi Vedic College

 (Karandai copper plates) As is known Rājēndra established the Vedic village in Tribhuvana-Mahādevi-caturvedi-maṅgalam which he gifted to 1080 Vedic Brāhmaṇas. In his grant, he mentions the different Vedas, Vedānta, Sanskrit grammari Aṣṭādhyāyī, Dharma Śāstras and the teaching of the epics. The following are the texts that were to be taught and the provision in kinds of land allotted for that purpose.
  1. Mīmāṁsa Bhaṭṭa-vṛtti (Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā) - 5 vēlis of wetland
  2. Vedānta Bhaṭṭa-vṛtti (Uttara-Mimāṁsā) - 5 vēlis of wetland
  3. Vyākaraṇa Bhaṭṭa-vṛtti - 4 vēlis of lands all were wetland
  4. Bhaviṣyat kidaip-puram - 2 vēlis
  5. Taittirīya kiḍaip-puram - 2 vēlis
  6. Vājasajeyak kiḍaip-puram - 2 vēlis
  7. Talavakāra sāma kiḍaip-puram - 2 vēlis
  8. Chandoga sāma kiḍaip-puram - 2 vēlis
  9. Atharvak kidaip-puram - 2 vēlis
  10. Rūpāvatāra kiḍaip-puram – 2 vēlis (simplified Sanskrit)
  11. Smṛti-mūlam-grantham (Dharma Śāstra) - 2 vēlis
  12. Exposition of the Mahābhārata - 2 vēlis
  13. For cleaning the hall and providing drinking water - 2 vēlis
 Bhaviṣya Puram is the land for Ṛg Vedic samhitā. Bhaṭṭa-vṛtti stands for expounding the meaning of related subjects (e.g., Mīmāṁsa). Kidaip-puram is a technical word denoting the land allotted for teaching students the whole of the particular Veda which was to be committed to memory and recited. The exponent of the meaning would have to not only memorize the whole text but would also have to expound its meaning properly which was a challenging task. Hence he was paid more and was called Bhaṭṭaṉ or an exponent. The teacher was expected to recite the text with the students to equip them with proper pronunciation. Pāṇini’s treatise on Sanskrit grammar Aṣṭhādhyāyī and the simplified grammar Rūpāvatāra were held important next only to the Vedas. The law books Smṛti called the original texts (Mūlam grantham) were also studied. This would come as an important revelation. Enforcement of law at the rural level was considered important in Cōḻa times, and that required lawyers in villages. The codified law texts in those days were Dharma Śāstras. The study of original texts and not the commentaries was emphasised. The law was enforced through the judicial maṉṟam /dharmāsana, a branch of the village assembly. The members were elected for their knowledge of the law texts. The Mānur inscription of Mārañjaḍaiyaṉ records that the members to be elected had to have passed an exam on a text in Dharma Śāstra. In addition to the dharma treatises, it was considered essential to educate the common man with anecdotes of righteous conduct. The epic Mahābhārata was considered a law book in action. So, provision was made to expound the Mahābhārata regularly in every village for which land endowments were made. The Mahābhārata was considered the fifth Veda. “Bhāratam Pañcamo vēdah” runs an ancient saying. Not only Bhārata but also the Rāmāyaṇa was given equal importance. For, in the recently discovered Indaḷūr plates, which were issued 40 years later by Rājēndra Cōḻa II, the son of Rājēndra I, the Rāmāyaṇa is mentioned as a text for study. We, therefore, find that the exposition of the Mahābhārata was included in the Karandai plates of Rājēndra I.

9.5. Indaḷūr Rājēndra Cōḻa Vedic College

 Rājēndra Cōḻa (II), the second son of Rājēndra I, issued a copper plate that was found about five years ago (2010) at Indaḷūr near Māyavaram. It has since been published by the Tamiḻnāḍu State Department of Archaeology. It refers to the constitution of a new Vedic colony under the name of Rājēndra-chōḻa-caturvedi-maṅgalam, named after Rājēndra Cōḻa I, who issued the Karandai plates. It was issued 40 years after the Karandai plates. The editors of the plates provided the readings but failed to note the importance of the Vedic college mentioned in it. First, I will give the details of the establishment of the Vedic college below, which I call Rājēndra Cōḻa Vedic College. The subjects taught, the gift of land for each subject (rounding off the measurement, leaving the minor areas), the land measurement given in terms of vēli, mā, and kāṇi, and so on, are discussed here (for our understanding one vēli of land is = 6 1/2 acres of land, 20 mā = one vēli). All lands gifted were wetlands suitable for cultivation. The majority of the subjects taught were the same as found in the Karandai plates, indicating the College was formed on the same model, but some details have been left out. However, the listing of subjects is in the same order.
  • Bhaviṣya kiḍaip-puram - 3 mā and 3 kāṇi
  • Taittirīya kiḍaip-puram - 3 mā and 3 kāṇi
  • Vājasaneya kiḍaip-puram - 2 mā
  • Candoga Sāma - 3 mā and 1/2 kāṇi
  • Talavakāra kiḍaip-puram - 2 mā and 1 kāṇi
  • Ṣadaṅgam - 1 mā and 3 kāṇi
  • Vyākaraṇa bhaṭṭa-vṛtti - 1/4 vēli and 1/2 mā
  • Prābhākara-vṛtti 1 muntiri
  • Bhaṭṭa-darśana, Brahad-tikā, and Kārika - 1/4 vēli and 1/2 mā
  • Tantra Dipikā - 1/4 vēli and 1/2 mā
  • Mīmāṁsā bhaṭṭa-vṛtti - 1/4 vēli and 1/2 mā
  • Prābhākara accu Vedānta-vṛtti -1/4 vēli and 1/2 mā
  • Smṛtis including Manu - 4 mā and 3 kāṇi
  • Mahābhārata and Srimad Rāmāyaṇa - 4 mā
  • Rūpāvatāra - 4 mā
 A study of these subjects and their provisions shows that they are lower than the ones found in Karandai plates of Rājēndra. We will examine this point below. Probably the number of seats available was limited and consequently, the extent of land allotted was less. As all the colleges included free boarding and lodging for the students, the provision for facilities might have been cut down. There was no provision for the teaching of the Atharva Veda here whereas it was included in the Tribhuvana-mahādevi college of Rājēndra. Probably it was not a very popular subject in the Indaḷūr college. There were separate provisions for Pūrva-Mīmāṁsa and Vedānta, but in the Rājēndras’ Vedic college, the Kumarila-Bhaṭṭa-Mīmāṁsā, with its commentaries and Prābhākara-Mīmāṁsā, were taught separately, indicating their popularity. Though there is no mention of Vedānta separately, it is possible that the subject Mīmāṁsā mentioned separately besides the two schools of Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā would denote Vedānta. A specific mention of Vedānta in the Tribhuvana-mahādevi Vedic college points out that Vedantic study had picked up in Rājarājā’s time for we find that Śaṅkarā’s Bhagavad pādīya Śārīraka-Mīmāṁsā with Chidānanda’s commentary was especially expounded at Cōḻa-mahādevi village, situated near Tribhuvana-mahādevi Vedic college. The study of Vedāṅgas mentioned as Ṣadaṅgam in Rājēndra Cōḻa Vedic college at Indaḷūr is interesting. The Ṣaḍaṅgam are generally Vyākaraṇa (Grammar), Jyotiṣa (Astronomy), Niruktam (Etymology), Chandas (Poetry), Kalpam (Rituals), and Mīmāṁsam (examination or profound thought). Here we find Mīmāṁsam and Vyākaraṇa mentioned separately as well. It is unclear whether Kalpam and Brāhmam (letters) were taught. The commentator Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar who lived a century later mentions Gaṇitam as one among the six aṅgas besides Niruktam, Vyākaraṇam, Kalpam, Brāhmam, and Jyotiṣam in his commentary on Tolkāppiyam. The provisions for Vyākaraṇa and Rūpāvatāra separately indicate an emphasis on the study of Sanskrit grammar, the former standing for Pāṇini’s Aṣṭhādyāyī, while the latter refers to Laghu Sanskrit grammar. It may be noted that the school of Kumarila Bhaṭṭa is called Darśana in the inscription. Kumarila Bhaṭṭa’s school seems to have been very popular as three texts of this school are mentioned in the inscription namely Bhaṭṭa-darśana, Brahadtīkā and, Kārikā. Monier Williams dictionary refers Brahad-tīkā-saṅgraha but not to Brahad-tīkā. Also, it does not mention Kārikā. The inscription records another text named Tantra-dīpikā. It probably also was a Mīmāṁsā text. The list then gives Mīmāṁsā Bhaṭṭa-vṛtti. This might represent Uttara Mīmāṁsā - Vedānta. Following this the inscription mentions “Prābhākara vṛttiyāccu Vedānta-vṛtti”. It seems there is some mistake here. Prābhākara is a Pūrva Mīmāṁsā school, while the Vedānta is an Uttara Mīmāṁsā school. As both are combined in the text, we may infer that it refers to both schools. We have also seen that this college was expected to expound upon the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. Further, this college taught Smṛti texts like Manu etc. Evidently, it was teaching more dharma texts than those of Manu. The picture we gain is that it was a great college of Vedic tradition.

9.6. Tribhuvanai Tribhuvana Mahādevi Vedic College

 Tribhuvanam is a village near Pondicherry, which has an ancient Viṣṇu temple with many Cōḻa inscriptions. The earliest inscriptions date from the reign of Rājarāja I but they are in fragments. The name of the temple is mentioned in these inscriptions as “Vīra Nārāyaṇa Viṇṇagar” in the centre of the village. Vīra Nārāyaṇa is a famous title of Parāntaka Cōḻa who ruled from 906 to 944 C.E. It is possible that the village assumed significance during the time of Parāntaka. In the tenth year of Rājarāja (995 CE), a high-ranking official built the village assembly hall in the central part of the village (Brahma-sthāna). The inscription calls the village Tribhuvana-mahādevi-caturvedi-maṅgalam. Tribhuvana Mahādevī was one of the queens of Rājarāja, next in importance to his chief queen Lokamahādevi. Tribhuvana Mahādevi was the mother of Rājēndra I, the Great. From the time of Rājarāja, this village reached great heights which calls for detailed study separately. We will focus here on the establishment of the Vedic college and its importance. Many important inscriptions of Rājēndra I are found here. One inscription dated in the reign of his son Rājādhirāja (grandson of Rājarāja), dated in his 30th regal year (1048 CE) mentions a great gift made by Rājādhirāja himself to the Viṣṇu temple. The inscription makes a specific mention of the purpose of the gift which is important. It says he made provisions for several religious rituals and worship in the temple for the well-being and condition of Rājēndrā’s health (Rājēndra Cōḻa dēvar thirumēni Kalyāṇa thirumēni āha). This shows that Rājēndra was still alive and was unwell at the time of this grant. It must be remembered that Rājādhirāja ascended the throne in 1018 and had a joint rule with his father Rājēndra, whose reign ended in 1044. The great historian Prof. K.A. Nilakaṇṭa Śastri and others have concluded that he died in the next year 1045. This inscription of Tribhuvanai mentions Rājēndra was still alive in 1048. Evidently, he was bedridden at the time of this grant and the gift was made praying for his betterment. Rājēndra must have been at an advanced age at that time and might have passed away after that. Land was gifted to the temple to feed Brāhmaṇas during the pūjā in the temple in the name of “Rājēndra Cōḻaṉ Uttamāgram”. In addition, a Vedic college was established where the following subjects were taught. The provisions for the teachers and the students were also specified. They are listed below.
  1. Ṛg Veda - 3 teachers, 60 Students
  2. Yajurveda - 3 teachers, 60 students
  3. Chandoga Sāma - 1 teacher, 20 students
  4. Talavakāra Sāma - 1 teacher,
  5. Vājasaneya - 1 teacher
  6. Bhaudhāyana sūtrā - 1 teacher
  7. Satyāshāda sūtrā - 1 teacher, 50 students, above 4 subjects together
  8. Vedāntam - 1 teacher, 10 students
  9. Mīmāṁsā - 2 teachers, 20 students
  10. Vyākaraṇam - 1 teacher, 10 students
  11. Manu - 1 teacher
  12. Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa - 1 teacher, 10 students
  13. Vaikhānasam - 1 teacher
 There are minor damages in the record. There were 18 teachers, the Vedic and Sūtrā teachers were called Oduvippār. This is the case with Vaikhānasam as well. These subjects are called Śāstras in the record. This mode of teaching is by rote committing to memory through oral repetition. The teacher of the Vedānta, Mīmāṁsā, and Vyākaraṇa is called vakkāṇippāṉ, the teaching is conducted with commentary and explanation. It is a Prākṛt word for vyākhyānam in Sanskrit. The text of the Mahābhārata and the Śrī Rāmāyaṇa are said to be read, i.e., vācippāṉ and the text of Manu was to be learned through listening. The remunerations differ for different subjects. The maximum payment was for the teacher of Vedānta. Next came the teacher of Mīmāṁsā, then the teacher of Vyākaraṇa followed by the exponent of the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata, the teachers of Rūpāvatāra, Manudharma, and last, the teacher of Vaikhānasa in descending grade of payments.

9.7. Tirumukkūḍal Vedic College (Jananāthan Vedic College)

 A very long inscription on the front maṇḍapa of the Viṣṇu temple of Tirumukkūḍal village, in Chengalpaṭṭu district, is of historic interest in more than one way. It is dated in the sixth year of the Cōḻa king Vīra Rājēndra, the third son of Rājēndra I, and falls around 1065 CE. The inscription may be studied under three major parts. The first part deals with provisions made in the temple for regular worship of Lord Viṣṇu here and a sub-shrine enshrining Śrī Rāghavac Cakravarti (Śrī Rāma) and to Veṇṇaikkūṭṭaṉ (dancing Navanīta Kṛṣṇa) and also details of festivals in different months of the year and the provisions made for celebrating the same. This part requires a separate study. The second part deals with the Vedic college and Śālai attached to this temple. The third part deals with a well-equipped hospital in the temple, the type of diseases, the number of patients admitted to the hospital, and the details of medicine administered and stored in the hospital. This is the only inscription that is known to Indian history which deals with a 1000-year-old Indian hospital in inscriptions. However, we will study only the Vedic college here. The College was to function in the Maṇḍapa named Jananāthaṉ maṇḍapa in the temple. Jananāthaṉ was a title of Rājarāja Cōḻa I. Evidently, it was built in the name of Rājarāja, either during his reign or his son Rājēndra I. When compared to other Cōḻa Vedic colleges this seems to be a moderate college admitting only 60 students and the subjects offered were also limited. The following is the list of the subjects, teachers, and students.
  1. Ṛg Veda - 10 students, 1 teacher
  2. Yajur Veda -10 students, 1 teacher
  3. Vyākaraṇa and Rūpāvatāra - 20 students, 1 teacher
  4. Mahāpāñcarātra - 10 students, 1 teacher
  5. Śiva (darśana) - 3 students
  6. Vaikhānasa - 5 students
 It is seen that only two Vedas, Ṛg Veda and Yajur Veda were taught. As in all Cōḻa Vedic Colleges, both Vyākaraṇa (namely Pāṇini’s Aṣṭhādyāyī) and Rūpāvatāra were included as a subject in this College as well. Among the other three subjects, we find two new subjects. One deals with Mahā-Pāñcarātra, which clearly is Vaiṣṇava Āgama but the exact name of the text is not mentioned. This seems to be the earliest reference to Pāñcarātra Āgama in Tamiḻnāḍu and had ten students. The Vaikhānasa Āgama was also taught here but the number of students was only five. What is surprising is the inclusion of Śaivāgamā which had 3 students. Provisions were also made for 3 cooks in the kitchen and 2 women servants.

9.8. Ancient Vedic College Kāntalūr Śālai

 One of the most ancient foundations of a Vedic College recorded in documents of this country comes from Tiruvananthapuram, in Kerala mentioned in a copper plate grant dated 865 CE. The grant was issued by the Yādava king of Karunandaṉ Aḍakkaṉ who purchased lands, established a town named after his title Pārthiva-śekhara-puram, built a Viṣṇu temple (Viṣṇu Bhaṭṭāra) and as an adjunct to this temple he established this post graduate Vedic centre called “Pārthiva-śekhara-puram śālai”. But what is amazing is that he mentioned the number of seats provided for each of the three Vedas – Ṛg, Yajur and Sāma, the qualifications prescribed for admission, the mode of study, provision of a hostel, the discipline enforced among the students, the punishment prescribed for misbehaviour, and the landed property provided as a perpetual endowment for running the institution. This is the earliest in the whole country that gives such details. It was modeled on another similar college, already functioning at “Kāndalūr śālai” indicating that it was the norm prevalent in similar institutions established much earlier. Another important point is that such Institutions were founded as part of temples. That it is a royal foundation needs to be noted. The students were called Śaṭṭars. The record is in Tamiḻ and Sanskrit. Details of Parthiva-śēkhara-puram record and the number of seats provided:
  1. Bahrich-caraṇa seats 45
  2. Taittirīya-caraṇa seats 36
  3. Talavakāra-caraṇa seats 14
  4. Total seats 95

9.8.1. Rules of Admission
  • One should have studied Mīmāṁsā, Vyākaraṇa, and Paurohitya
  • Should have no landed property (Poor students Only)
  • Should have adequate qualification to deal with three functions (trairādhya vyavahāra)
  • Should produce certificates from five Śaṭṭars that the above statements produced by the candidate were truthful

9.8.2. Modes of Study: (Vāram)
  • Should recite nine “pugavus” as two “kramavāras” alternately in Sūtrās and Sūtrā-āraṇas
  • Should repeat nine “pugavus” as two “kramavāras” alternately in Śākha, Kalpa and Ghaṇa.
  • Repeat nine “pugavus” in two vārams in “Ahattūham” (from memory)

9.8.3. Code of Students’ Conduct
  • If any student speaks ill of another during the course, he will be fined five kāṇams that should be paid in the hands of elected representatives of the assembly “sabhai perumakkaḷ”.
  • If one Śaṭṭar punches the head of another, he should pay a fine of five kāṇams.
  • The one who received the punch should also pay the same fine.
  • If one student inflicts wounds on another with any weapon, he will be dismissed from the course immediately.
  • Students are not permitted to carry weapons while going to assembly meetings.
  • No kind of deceit is allowed within the temple premises.
  • Śaṭṭars were not permitted to keep servant maids in their houses (hostel rooms).
  • No one was permitted to alienate the lands of the educational institution (Śālābhogam) or the temple lands (Dēvatāna Lands). Those who attempt such acts would be fined five kalañju of gold. Without paying that fine they would not be allowed to dine in the hostel (Śālai).
  • Those who tried to coerce or compulsorily collect rents from the tenants of the Śālābhoga lands or Dēvatāna lands would be fined ten times the amount.
  • In case of taxes in arrears from any, the defaulter would either be fined 50 kāṇams and the tax would be collected, or he had to be bound by decisions made independently by three Śaṭṭars.
  • Three Śaṭṭars from each caraṇas should report for compulsory service (kaḍamai) as directed by the assembly failing which they would have to pay 54 kāṇams as fine and in addition to performing the assigned duty.
  • No one could stop the daily routines in the temple under any pretext.
  • No one could prevent the daily food offering to the deity under any pretext or obstruction. Those who did so would have to pay one kaḻañcu of gold per day and not be permitted to dine until they paid the fine.
  • If any temple servant spoke disparagingly about a Saṭṭar he would be fined one kācu.

9.9. Tirunāvāy Brahmasvam - The Most Ancient Vedic School of Kerala

 Kerala has many aspects of ancient Indian culture intact. The temples, the mode of worship, Vedic studies, the mode of Vedic sacrifices, the functioning of the ancient system of village assemblies, and the judicial administrations are some of them. Āyurvedic practices, Astronomy, Mathematics, Musical systems, dance, dramas, and even what are called folk culture – all are preserved in their pristine purity and simplicity, despite distorted presentations, and alien publicity. The world at large has now realized it is in Kerala that the ancient culture of India is still surviving. One such system is the mode of learning ancient wisdom of India i.e., the study of the Vedas. It is the duty of every Indian and perhaps of everybody to see that these are properly understood and preserved. UNESCO has now recognized the Vedic system of learning as a unique world heritage. More efforts from all sections are required to preserve them and show to the world the achievement of India. India declared to the world that critical knowledge is the Supreme – “Vijñānam Brahma” for it leads to Universal happiness. So, the study and recitations of the Vedas were done in temple premises in the divine presence. Tirunāvāy is an ancient village on the banks of Bharatapuḻā, where there exists a well-known ancient Viṣṇu temple, centered on which was a great Vedic school from days of yore. This Vedic centre drew students and great scholars from near and far who were to guide the destiny of Kerala culture from very ancient times. Recorded history shows two of Kerala’s greatest thinkers hailed from this school from before 1425 CE and continued till very recent times for over six hundred years. Interestingly both were named Nārāyaṇa were from Nambudri families. One lived in the 15th century and the other, two hundred years later in the 17th century. The first was popularly called Nārāyaṇan Nambudri and the later called Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭatri. Both of them were great Vedic Scholars.

9.9.1. Nārāyaṇan Nambudri of Tantra Samuccaya

The earlier Nārāyaṇan Nambudri was the author of a temple ritual treatise called “Tantra Samuccaya” which he composed in the Kali year 4529 corresponding to 1428 CE. He belonged to Bhārgava gotra and was born in the family of Jayamaṅgaḷa kula which got localised as Cennas (Jayanta becomes Centa in Prākṛt). The Tantra samuccaya authored by Nārāyaṇan Nambudri is followed in most Kerala temples to date. Before him there were many texts on temples and rituals, almost beginning from Ādi Śaṅkarācārya who is credited with the work “Prapañcasāra”, “Śilparatna” of Śrīkumāra, etc., but the Tantra samuccaya became so popular that it eclipsed the other works because of its lucidity and easy-to-handle approach. Many writers have later written commentaries on this text, and it is not an exaggeration to say it is Nārāyaṇan Nambudri lives on in temples of Kerala through his work. The second one is Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭatri who wrote Nārāyaṇīyam.

9.9.2. Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭatri – of Nārāyaṇīyam

The second Nārāyana Bhaṭṭa who was also called Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭatri belonged to the family of Mēlputtūr, near the Devi temple of Chandanakkāvu, near the Viṣṇu Kṣetra of Tirunāvāy. He lived in the late 16th and first half of the 17th century. He was the son of a great Vedic and Mīmāṁsaka scholar. Mātridatta took a keen interest in molding his son Nārāyaṇan by personally teaching him the Vedas and the Mīmāṁsā. Till very recent times the traditional learning system was not based on getting certificates but on mastering each subject by learning with masters. Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa wanted to master many subjects in the Vedic and Sanskrit lore and went to different masters one after the other, learned Vyākaraṇa, Tarka, Kāvya, and other Śāstras. He learned Vyākaraṇa from Piṣaroti, Tarka from Damōdara, Vedic literature from Mādhvācārya and Mīmāṁsā from his own father, all masters in their respective fields. He flowered into a master of learning in every field and so contributed to every field that marks him as the foremost intellect that Kerala has produced. That is how he could emotionally live in the heart of every Keralite to this day. He became a mathematician and astronomer. In ancient times, the Vedic studies did not stop with memorising the Vedic hymns alone but encompassed what was called the six systems ṣadaṅgas, namely Nirukta, Vyākaraṇa, Kalpa, Gaṇitha (Astronomy), Chandas (poetics) and Śikshā (theories of communication) including script. Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa was patronised by the ruler Puratam Tirunāḷ Mahārāja also called Dēvanārāyaṇa, the king of Ambalappuḻa who himself was a great Scholar. He requested Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa to write a work on Vyākaraṇa which Nārāyaṇa did and obliged by writing the Prakriya sarvasva. He was also a contemporary of Yajña-Nārāyaṇa Dīkṣita of Cōḻa-dēśa. It is known Kerala has preserved to this day ancient mathematical theories because of Vedic masters who used them in astronomy and architectural science. Similarly, they preserved the Ayurvedic science because of their knowledge of Sanskrit. Their system of communication was through polished language (Sanskrit), poetry (Chandas), and logic (all due to mastery of the six systems). Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭatri’s most outstanding contribution was the Nārāyaṇīyam on Lord Kṛṣṇa of Guruvāyur. In this work, in addition to various poetic meters, he has used rare musical tunes as well, showing his fine command of Music. There are other works of Nārāyaṇa bhaṭṭatri that may be noted:
  • Prakriyā Sarvasva (composed in 1616 CE)
  • Bhramara Sandesa,
  • Nārāyaṇīyam (composed in 1586 CE, expressed in days as Kali 1712210) in 1036 poems in 100 daśakas. It is believed he refers to a flood in the river Ambalappuḻa year 1611). He lived for 106 years from 1560 to 1666 CE
  • Mānameyodaya first part (on Mīmāṁsā)
  • Śrīpādasapatati (on Goddess)
  • Asvalāyana Kriyākrama (on Asvalāyana sūtrā)
 Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa has written a number of Prabandhas for the Cākkiyārs to enact in temples. The following were the Prabhandha also called Campu.
  • Svāha Sudhākara
  • Matsyāvatāra
  • Aṣtami Campu
  • Rājasūya
  • Dūta Kāvya
  • Subhadrāharana
  • Pāñcāli Swayamvara
 Besides, Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭatri composed a royal Praṣasti for the king of Ambalappuḻa which were used in royal charters and inscriptions. As far as one could see there is none in the history of Kerala who was such a genius, scientist, mathematician, poet, dramatist, etc., and yet Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭatri was essentially a Vedic scholar. He was a product of Tirunāvāy school of Vedic studies. Bhaṭṭatri in Sanskrit is Bhaṭṭa – Śrī. Similarly, Nambūtri or Nambis in ancient times were priests in temples and Bhaṭṭars were exponents of Śāstras. Both were scholars of Vedic tradition. This school produced such eminent personalities of Kerala, about whom the state of Kerala and the entire nation should be proud. Having flourished for more than five hundred years of existence till about forty years ago it has now been closed. It is unfortunate that such a heritage school has been allowed to disappear. Any civilized country would have been proud of continuing such a 500-year-old school. Most of the last batch of students who passed out of this school are now above 70 years of age. Some of them are participating now in Kadavallūr Yajña to test themselves for mastery of the Vedas by the most ancient system of examination called “Anyonyam”. 1. Rāmānuja, Myth and Reality, R. Nagaswamy, Tamil Arts Academy, 2008.
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