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Art and Culture of Tamilnadu
R. Nagaswamy
20. KHABERIS EMPORION-PORT CITY OF THE CHOLAS
Pūmpuhār, the celebrated port city of the Cöḻas, was the leading international port at the beginning of the Christian era. The word Puhār in Tamil stands for a place where a river enters the sea. Pūmpuhār is the place where the River Kāveri joins the sea. This city was known by various names in ancient times like Poompulhar, Kāveripaṭṭiṉam, Kakaṇḍi, Sampāpati, Cöḻapaṭṭinam, Khaberis Emporium and heaven on earth.
Ancient Tamil works like Ahaṉāṉūru, Puraṉaṉūru, Paṭṭiṇappālai, Cilappathikāram, and Maṇimekhalai, and Prākṛt works like Milindapanha, the Buddhist Jataka tales, the Abhidhammavatara, the Buddha Vamsattha katha and foreign books like the Geography of Ptolemy, the Periplus, the work of Pliny and ancient inscriptions throw valuable light on the history of this celebrated city. Its ancient name seems to have been Sampāpati. Maṇimekhalai says that the Kāveri was brought to the city by a Cöḻa King and the city was renamed Kāveripūmpaṭṭiṉam.
The earliest reference to Kāveripaṭṭiṉam is in a Prākṛt inscription of the second century B.C., found at Bharhut in northern India. The inscription refers to the gift of a stone slab for an enclosure of a stūpa by a Buddhist nun called Some, who hailed from the city of Kakandi. Kakandi, according to Maṇimekhalai was one of the names of Kāveripaṭṭinam. It is said that when Prasurāma was annihilating the kṣatriya race the then Cöḻa king of Kāveripaṭṭiṉam, Kandan, entrusted the care of the city to Kakandan, a son of gaṇika, and retired to forest. Since then the city came to be called Kakandi. The Stūpa at Bharhut was originally erected by Aśoka and was enlarged in the time of the Suṅga kings in the second century B.C. That a Buddhist nun from Kāveripaṭṭiṉam, gifted a slab as early as that period, shows that Kāveripaṭṭiṉam was a flourishing city and that it served as an important Buddhist centre. The missionary activities of Aśoka should have left their impact on the city. It continued to be an important Buddhist centre till at least the eighth century A.D.
All the prākṛt references to this city come from Buddhist sources. The celebrated book, Milindapanha dealing with the questions of Menandar and the answers of Bikku Nāgasena, calls this city as Kolapaṭṭina, one of the best known ports of the time. The Milindapanha is ascribed to the beginning of the Christian era. In a Buddhist Jataka, a certain Akitti is said to have lived in a garden near Kāveripaṭṭaṉam.
Puhār was ruled by eminent kings like Toditot Sembiyan, who destroyed a fortress (Tungeyil), Muchukunda, Manunīthi Cöḻa, Karikāla, and Kiḷḷi Vaḷavan. The celebrated festival to Indra is said to have been instituted during the reign of Toditot Sembiyan. The Cöḻa king Muchukunda is said to have enshrined a Bhūta in the market place in honour of the help he had recieved from it during a war with the Asuras. Kāveripaṭṭiṉam should have been enlarged during the reign of Karikāla.
The lay out of the city, the names of streets, groves and gardens, etc., are given in detail in the Cilappadhikāram. A perusal of the description convinces the reader that this city was built on a well-laid out plan and that it was a fine example of a planned city as early as 100 B.C. From this it is also learnt town planning was highly developed in the Tamil country even at the beginning of the Christian era.
It is seen from Paṭṭiṇappālai, Cilappadhikāram and Maṇimekhalai that the divine architect, Māya, was held in highesteem in the Tamil Nadu. It is likely that the city of Kāveripūmpaṭṭiṉam was planned on the lines of the Maya school of town planning and architecture. The city was divided into two main partis, Maruvūrppākkam and Paṭṭiṇappākkam. The intervening space was used as the market place of the city. The king and his officers, merchants, cultivators and the army lived in Paṭṭiṇappākkam, while small traders and labourers lived in Maruvūrppākkam. On the seashore was located the ceri of fishermen and a little away was the settlement of the Yavanas. Graneries and storehouses for imported goods were also located in the area.
A graphic description of the life, in Kāveripaṭṭiṉam is given in Paṭṭiṇappālai, while the layout of the city into two Maruvūrppākkam and Paṭṭiṇappākkam, an account of the people who lived in these areas are given in Cilappadikāram. This is supplemented by Maṇimekhalai and a few early saṅgam works. Foreign notices like Periplus, Ptolemy's Geography, and Pliny’s travels clearly indicate that it was one of the most important international seaports during the beginning of the Christian era. The major part of the sea trade was in the hands of the Cöḻas at the time and Kāveripaṭṭiṉam was the main port of the Cöḻas.
A part of this flourishing city seems to have gone under the sea sometime before the time of Maṇimekhalai. However, from the description of the city in the same work it is clear that the sea erosion did not cause much damage and that the city was still flourishing at the time. This is confirmed by the Prākṛt texts Abhidammavatara and Buddha vamsatta katha, written in Kāveripaṭṭiṉam about A.D. 400. The author of the above works, Buddhadatta, was a great grammarian and an accomplished poet. He wrote another Prākṛt text called Vinayaviniccaya. From the last mentioned work it is learnt that Buddhadata spent sometime at Bhutamaṅgala in the Cöḻa rāṣṭra, when Achchuta Vikkanta of the Kalabhrakula was ruling the Cöḻa country (achchuta vikkante kalabhra kulanandane, mahim samanusasante aradaho ca samapito). The Kalabrahas seem to have captured the Cöḻa country in the fifth century A.D. and were thrown out in the sixth by the rising powers of the Pallavas in the north and the Pāṇḍyas in the South. Achchuta Vikkanta seems to have been a great ruler. He supported Buddhism. From the des cription of Kāverippaṭṭiṉam given in Abhidhammavatra and Buddhavamsatta katha, it is earnt that it was still in a flourishing state in A.D. 400 though trade with Rome has touched a low mark, following the fall of the Roman Empire. In both the works, Buddhadatta gives identical descriptions of Kāveripaṭṭiṉam (nanāratna sampunne vividhapana sangati Kāveripaṭṭana ramme nanāramopasobhite kelāśikharākara pasada paṇimaṇḍite). Buddhodatta says that Kāveripaṭṭiṉam was inhabited by men and women of noble descent. The city was complete in all aspects and presented a beautiful appearance. There were many bazaars selling various goods. Precious gems of various types were available in plenty. The city was full of lofty and palatial mansions, beautified with entrance towers. There were many groves, pleasing to the eyes. There was the crystal like Kāveri and the cool sea, adding to the beauty of the city. A certain noble, named Kanakadasa, built a beautiful vihāra there with enclosures and elegant turrets. Budhadatta states that he wrote the Abhidammavatara, and the Buddhavamsatta katha, When residing is a cool and pleasant part of the vihāra which was very ancient. It is evident that a great Buddha vihāra was erected at Kāveripaṭṭiṉam by about A.D. 400. Maṇimekhalai refers to indra vihāram ëḻu which is taken to mean seven vihāras built by Indra. In this connection it is interesting to mention that there is a School of architecture and sculpture called indra matha prevelant in the Tamil country. It is likely that the vihāras at Kāveripaṭṭiṉam were built, according to this school. But Maṇimekhalai refers to the yavanas. It is therefore, evident that Maṇimekhalai should be ascribed to a period when Kāveripaṭṭiṉam was still trading with Rome.
Many temples dedicated to Gods like Indra, Sūrya, Śiva and Viṣṇu, are said to have existed in the city. A Buddist vihāra and a chaitya were also located in the area. The Paṭṭiṇappālai refers to people from various countries residing amicably at Puhār. Maṇimekhalai refers to artisans from the Magadha, Avanti and Maratha Countries and also Greek sculptors (yavana taccars) working at Kāveripaṭṭiṉam. But the main life of the city seems to have cenered around foreign trade. According to Tamil sources, high-bred loses seemed to have come from the Western wo while foodstuffs and other utilitarian objects were imported from Śrī Lanka, China and Malaya. Sandalwood, pepper, precious gems, silk and cotton were exported from this city.
According to the Periplus, the Cöḻas controlled a major part of the seatrade. Three types of ships frequented the port. Country boats sailed along the each coast upto Damilica in the West Coast. The second type seems to be the Kaṭṭamaram built of logs of wood and called Saṅgara. The third type was the huge ships, Colandia, which sailed to far off countries like Malaya and China.
According to Maṇimekhalai, the city was once submerged under the sea, but from the fact that the same text gives a good description of the city, either, the entire city was submerged and rebuilt after the see had receded or only a part of the city was engulfed. The latter seems more probable. So it must be taken that this important city, like many other ancient ones lost its importance gradually the centuries.
The Pallavas slowly extended their power to the south and Kāveripaṭṭiṉam was included in then territory. The temple of Pallavanīśvaram should have been built sometime at the beginning of the sixth Century A.D. by a Pallava monarch whose name is not known. To greater part of the Cöḻa country was annexed be the Pallavas in the reign of Simhavarman, the father of Sinhaviṣṇu, and the temple might have come into existence during his period. For at the beginning of the sixth century. Appar and his younger contemporary, Jñānasambandar, temple sang of the Lord of this city. From these hymns it may be gathered that Kāveripaṭṭiṉam did not lose its importance.
In the eighth century, Kaveripatinam continued to be under the Pallavas. In the reign of Rājasimha, the celebrated builder of the Kailāsanātha temple of Kāñci, a Buddha Vihāra is said to have been erected at Nāgapaṭṭiṉam, further South of Kāveripaṭṭiṉam. Rājasimha is said to have ruled extensive territories which included even the Laccadive Islands.
Kāveripaṭṭiṉam, by virtue of its strategic importance, should have played a leading part during this period. A beautiful gilded image of Bodhisattva Maitreya, found at Kāveripaṭṭiṉam, and now preserved in the Madras Museum, must be assigned to this period. In recent excavations at Kāveripaṭṭiṉam, a metal image of the seated Buddha was discovered; this also must be assigned to this period.
From the beginning of this century scholars have been evincing great interest in this ancient port. As early as 1910, the District Collector excavated the city and exposed some wells close to the Sea. The Annual Report of the Archaeological Department, Southern Circle, Madras, for the year 1910-11 carries the following report: "A slight excavation conduted last year by the Collector of the District exposed some wells close by the sea. Besides these, when observing this year, a brick well on the sea side was also noticed. The wells existing near the coastline have fine hard clay surroundings over the burnt earthen walls called Uraikiṇaru and also the same arrangement occurs over the brick wells. Probably this arrangement of enclosing mud is to prevent salt water percolating into them. From the presence of this wells, it must be inferred that there should have been habitations adjoining them. There are also mounds, two near the Pallavanīśvara temple and two near the Sampāpati temple which have been selected for further excavation is possible." This report shows the interest of the people in this ancient city.
Though many private institutions and scholars evinced great interest, much could not be accomplished for want of Scientific excavations. In 1961, the Archaeological Survey of India excavated the site and continued excavations for three seasons. It has since discontinued them. Even such a small-scale excavation as that carried out has yielded remarkable remains and antiquities. Mangaimaṭam, Veḷḷaiyan Iruppu, Maṇigrāmmam, Pallavanīśvaram and Vaṉagiri have so far been excavated
Of the structures so far exposed, two deserve special mention is a Wharf, found at Killaiyur?. Wooden posts have been discovered in situ. These were probably used for tying up boats Paṭṭiṇappālai gives a graphic description of a wharf where country boats laden with paddy were tied to rows of pegs. It is likely that the wharf now exposed is one such of ancient times. Another structure of interest is a part of a Buddha vihāra, over 18m long and with square chambers. Unfortunately the entire area could not be exposed since it is covered by an extensive residential portion. Besides the bronze image of seated Buddha, the excavations have yielded remains of an extensive vihāra. This vihāra is modelled on those in Nāgarjunakoṇḍa. This Suggested connection is strengthened by a Buddhapāda carved in limestone, found at Kāveripaṭṭiṉam. Limestone is not locally available in the Tamil country and is clearly from the Andhra region. The carving bears close resemblance to the Nāgarjunakoṇḍa sculptures. It must, therefore, be assigned to the post-Nāgarjunakoṇḍa period. If this view is tenable, it is likely that the excavated vihāra is the one built by Kanhadasa, where Buddhadatta composed the Buddhavamsatta katha and the Abhidamnavatara.
From Cilappadhikāram and Maṇimekhalai we learn that Buddhism was flourishing in this city and that there were a Buddha chaitya and a vihāra. A certain Kanhadasa is said to have built a vihāra in this city in about A.D. 400 The Buddhapāda, carrying Buddhist symbols like the Śrīvatsa, the Pūrṇakalaśa, the Svastika etc., were found in the area. A big pillar capital, made of brick and mortar, and some moulded bricks have been unearthed. A remarkable stucco head of a Buddhist deity, also discovered in this area speaks of the achievements of the stucco artist. Both Cilappadikāram and Maṇimekhalai pay tribute to stucco artists who are called Mannittalar.
Interesting terracotta figures. glass bangles, precious and semistones, etc., have been unearthed in this area. Coins of square and circular shapes have also been found. A Roman copper coin was discovered at Veḷḷaiyaṉ Iruppu, This confirms the erary references to the presence of Yavanas in the city. Coins of Rājarāja I were also found during the excavations.
A few remarkable antiquities picked up on the shores of Kāveripaṭṭiṉam are now with the Shanti Sadana Trust of Madras. A fine terracotta figure of mother and child and a terracotta lamp are now in that collection. There are also a number of copper coins there. In one type of coin, a tiger is seen standing with the front paw raised and the tail curved at the back. Over its head is seen the sun motif. The tiger is the emblem of the Cöḻas and this type is considered to be the one under circulation during the reign of Karikāla. The reverse of the coin shows a standing elephant, indicating the conquest of the Koṅgu country by the Cöḻas.