chap1 preface.html chapter1.html chapter2.html Art and Culture of Tamilnadu R. Nagaswamy 1. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TAMIL LAND
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THE ROYAL FAMILY According to an ancient Tamil saying, the ruler is the Soul of the Universe. From very early times, the king embodied the spirit of society. The divine origin of kingship was an accepted notion among the early Tamils. The saṅgam works and the post-saṅgam epics, the Cilappadhikāram and Maṇimëkhalai make pointed references to this concept. The Chera king, Ceṅguṭṭuvan is said to have inherited the grace of Lord Śiva. By the sixth century A.D., it had become a generally accepted belief and almost all the royal dynasties that ruled the Tamil country claimed divine origin, especially from Lord Śiva or Lord Viṣṇu. The Kūram Plates begin the geneology of the Pallavas vith Brahma. While claiming descent from Moon, a Pāṇḍya traces the origin of his family to primordial Nature. The Cinnamanūr Plates state that the Pāṇḍya line started with Amṛta kiraṇa i.e., Chandra, Amṛtakiraṇānvaya. The Dalavāypuram Plates begin the line with Brahma who is said to have taken birth in the navel-lotus of Nārāyaṇa. The Āy chieftains of Venādu also claimed that their family had Nārāyaṇa as Ādipuruṣa. Quite a number of rulers of India claimed that they belonged to either the solar or the lunar race (Surya or Chandra kulas). This concept was also known to the Tamils from very early times. The Chöḻas belonged to the solar race, while the Pāṇḍyas claimed lunar origin. Occasionally some of the houses claimed to belong to both the races, since there were frequent intermarriages among them. Gotra In addition, or the other of the Vedic sages. Tamil royal families claimed descent from one Thus the Pallavas belonged to the Bharadvāja gotra and their ancestry included Aṅgiras, Bṛhaspati and Bharadvāja. The Pāṇḍyas belonged to the Ātrëya gotra, the Chöḻas to the Kāśyapa and the Western Gaṅgas to the Kānvayana. The tradition of vedic ancestry is not mentioned in saṅgam literature, but it had taken deep roots long before the sixth century A.D. It was following this tradition that the rulers added the kṣatriya honorific Varman, to their names. This is another trait not noticed in the early saṅgam period. But the Pallavas, who appear in the Tamil land by the end of the third century, mention both these traditions in their charters. Their earliest charter assigned to the third century A.D., the Hirahadagalli Plates, call them Bharadvājas. Likewise, the Pāṇḍyas too bore the suffix Varma. The Pāṇḍyas of the postwe have records, ad Varman to sangam age, about their names. Legends By the sixth century the Hindu itihāsas and purāṇas and Buddhist jataka tales had gained full currency into Tamil land. and left their impact on the ruling clans of the Tamils. Even in the sangam age, we find this to a small extent, for the Cëras have participated in the Mahābhārata war. From sixth century the rulers began claiming the heroes of that epic as their progenitors. The Palavas claimed Drona and Aśvatthāma, the latter being the pregenitor of the Pallavakula. Though the early Pallava charters do not mention this fact, a copper plate of Parameśvaravarman I, issued in the seventh century, makes particular mention of it. The Pallava charters issued subsequently mention invariably the Aśvatthāma lineage the Pallavas. Pururavas and Nahusha that the are included in the Pāṇḍya ancestral list. It is categorically mentioned Pāṇḍavas destroyed Kurus (or Dhuryodhana) thus claiming Pāṇḍava lineage as well. The Chöḻa family was identified with the Ikṣvākus Hariśchandra, Bhagīratha, Dilīpa, Raghu, and Rama figuring as Chöḻas. Another pan-Indian ruler was Mandhata who is also mentioned as a Chöḻa. The story of Sibi who gave his flesh to save a dove, often mentioned in the Buddhist Jatakas, is also included in the Chöḻa geneology. The Āys of Vënādu, in south Tamil Nadu, near Travancore, who call themselves Vëḷirs, claim to have born in a Vedic sacrifice and seem to have migrated from north India, for they call themselves Vṛṣṇis and Yādavas. Lord Kṛṣṇa was their legendary hero. This is mentioned in their charters of the eighth century. Another branch of chieftains called Banas claimed descent from Mahābali Chakravarti. All this clearly indicates the full emergence of puranic culture from about the fifth century A.D. In addition to these puranic legends, some of the Buddhist jatakas influenced the making of the genealogies of the Tamil rulers in the seventh and eighth centuries. Thus both the Chöḻas and the Pāṇḍyas claim that one of their ancestors shared the seat of Indra, a legend common in the Jātaka tales. A few legends of local origin are also reflected in the royal pedigrees. One of these relates to Manunitti Chöḻa. His son accidentally killed a calf, his chariot running over it. The mother cow went to the palace and sounded the bell of justice. The king in punishment, ran his own chariot over his son. Sanskritisation While in the Saṅgam age, the Tamil kings bore Tamil names like Ceṅguṭṭuvan, Kiḷḷi, Neduñcheḻiyan, etc., from about the sixth century, all the rulers, irrespective of their lineage, bore Sanskrit Abhiṣeka nāmas (names assumed during the coronation). Thus the Pāṇḍya names read Jayantavarman, Arikeśari, Śrīmāra, Śrīvallabha, Jaṭila Parāntaka. Vīranārayaṇa, Rājasimha, Sundara, Vīra, Vikrama, Kulaśekhara, etc. The Chöḻa names include Vijayālaya, Āditya, Parāntaka, Rājāditya, Ariñjaya, Sundara, Uttama, Rājarāja, Rājendra, Rājādhiraja, Kulottuṅga and Vikrama. Simha, Simhaviṣṇu, Mahendra, Narasimha, Parameśvara, Rājasimha, Nandi, Danti, Nṛpatuṅga, Aparājita are well-known Pallava names. Beginning from the Christian era, the succeeding centuries witnessed a rapid increase in the power and authority of the rulers as more and more areas were brought under their direct rule. This resulted in an enormous concentration of power in the hands of the monarchs. The distance between the ruler and the ruled widened and a middle agency developed. From about the ninth century the term deva is attached to the name of the king, such as Nṛpatuṅgadeva, Parāntakadeva, Rājarājadeva. The names of the Imperial Chöḻas invariably include this term. Chakravarti Frequent references to the royal Chakra in the Saṅgam age clearly suggest that the concept of Chakravartin was known to the early Tamils. This concept was enlarged in the medieval period when the rulers, particularly the Chöḻas and following them the Pāṅḍyas, assumed the title, Tribhuvanachakravarti — the emperor of the three worlds. The Pallavas of the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries were called Dharmamahārajādhirājas. From the seventh century a number of Tamil rulers were called Adhirājas. Thus the Pallava ruler, Mahendravarman and Simhaviṣṇu are called Mahendra Potrādhirājan and Singhavinna Potrādhirājan respectively in Mamalapuram epigraphs. A copper plate charter of the eighth century records, that a number of Adhirājas of the Tamil country were uprooted by an invading clan called the Kalabhras. The Pāṇḍya king Avanichuḷāmaṇi (Seventh century) is called Adhirāja in the Veḷvikkuṭi grant. The titles Mahārāja and Sarvabhauma, were applied to the Pallavas and the Pāṇḍyas. A significant Tamil title of the Pallavas and the early Chöḻas is Perumānaṭi; Perumān means great, respected Personality, Lord or Deva, aṭi, i.e., pāda. The term seems to signify Devapada or Śrīpāda. The Kerala a rulers of the medieval period were addressed as Tiruvaṭi (Skt Śrīpāda) Another Tamil title which was often borne by medieval monarchs was Könerinmai Koṇḍān (unrivalled ruler), with the advent of Vijayanagara rule in the 14th century a further change is noticed. The rulers called themselves Devarājas or Deva mahārājas, Chatussamudrādhipatis and Mahāmaṇḍaleśvaras like Krishnadevamahārāya. Abhishekanāma The rulers, while ascending the throne, assumed significant titles, alternately. Thus the Cheras of the saṅgam age assumed the title Vānavaramban and Imayavaramban. The Pāṇḍya titles were Jaṭilavarman and Māravarman and those of the Chöḻas Parakesari and Rājakesari. The Pallavas did not follow this practice, but prefixed the term ko-vijaya to their names. Assuming titles alternately seems to have been a Tamil tradition. A number of epigraphs throw light on the ideals and practice of Tamil medieval rulers. Through virtue and prowess, learning, kindness towards their subjects, respect towards elders and the twice born and piety, they aimed at acquiring the reputation of Rājarishis of yore. That these were their goals is reflected in a number of Pallava grants. Prajāparipālana The kings were conscious of their responsibilities towards their subjects and in their epigraphs never failed to mention their love and affection towards them. The Pallavas likened their love for their subjects to parental affection. At their coronation they took a vow to protect their subjects in accordance with Dharma, which they called their Satyavrata. The Pāṇḍya rulers likewise called themselves the very refuge, śaraṇyas, of the people. A Chöḻa monarch mentions that he was a father to the fatherless, a mother to the motherless and a child to the childless. The Chöḻas also state that it was their aim to remove poverty, hunger and disease and provide shelter and just enjoyment to all their Subjects. The intention of the ruler is to see that his subjects enjoy all the pleasures of life, like the mythical land of Uttarakuru, states one of the Chöḻa praśastis. The Chöḻa's aim was to safeguard individual liberty and happiness so that each citizen felt that he had a full, independent and happy life. This awarenes among the rulers of the need to uphold individual liberty and happiness is a shining example of Tamil monarchy in the olden days. Scholarship Many of the Tamil rulers were highly learned and were authors of literary works. The Pallava ruler, Mahendra I (seventh century) was an outstanding author. He wrote in Sanskrit two farces, Mattavilāsaprahasana, and the Bhagavad ajjukiya; he is said to have invented a number of musical notations and written a work on Sanskrit prosody. His love of logic is reflected in his titles Anumāna and Upamāna. One of his illustrious successors, Rajasimha, another great scholar, is said to have mastered many sciences like aśvasāstra, gajaśāstra and music He mastered various branches of Śaiva Siddhānta and got himself cleansed of sins. A Pāṇḍya ruler of the eighth century A.D. is called Paṇḍitavatsala. A descendent of the same ruler in the 13th century is praised as a master of Ārya (Sanskrit) and Tamil literature. Vīra Pāṇḍya of the 13th century claims to have attained a high degree of proficiency in Tamil music, poetry and dance, the purāṇas, Patañjala sūtra and the Nītisāstras. Besides being scholars themselves, the kings of Tamil Nadu were great patrons of letters. Eminent poets adorned their courts. Manudharma Manu's code of law was guiding principle in the administration of the kingdom and all the rulers endeavoured their best to follow it. The Pallavas, the Pāṇḍyas and the Chöḻas invariably mention that they followed Manu’s dharma. Parāntaka Neduñjaṭayan a Pāṇḍya of the eighth century, followed the Mannudharmesita mārga. Jaṭāvarman Sundara Pāṇḍya, in his praśastis, announces that he enforced the Manu's code strictly. A number of Chöḻa's praśastis bear eloquent testimony to the way in which Manu dharma was administered in their kingdom. Some Chöḻa praśastis make a pointed reference to the fact that they fixed one-sixth of the produce as royal revenue as prescribed by Manu. It is held by some scholars that the famous ethical work in Tamil, Tirukkuṟaḷ, draws its inspiration mainly from Manu dharma. Though this claim is disputed by some other scholars, it is a fact that Manu's dharma was the sole guide of Tamil polity, as it is invariably mentioned by the kings in their praśastis. Another point of interest that is mentioned repeatealy from about the sixth century is the evil effects of Kali and the efforts of the monarchs to efface them. The Pāṇḍyas and, following them, the Chöḻas repeat this achievement. Vedic Sacrifices In the early literary period of the first-second century A.D., the Tamil rulers were great performers of Vedic sacrifices. There is not a single great ruler who did not perform one. Thus Karikala Chöḻa, Pāṇḍya Neduñjeḻiyan, and Cheran Seṅguṭṭuvan, the most celebrated kings of the sangam age, were praised for their Vedic sacrifices. One of the Pāṇḍyas, Mutukuṭumi Peruvaḻuti, performed a number of them and earned the title, the Pāṇḍya of many Yāgaśālas (pal yāgaśālai). Perunarkiḷḷi Chöḻa performed the Rājasūya and was called by that name. The fact that the literature of the saṅgam age refers more to Vedic sacrifices than to temples is a pointer to the popularity of the Vedic cults among the saṅgam Tamils. In the sixth and seventh centuries a marked change is witnessed as a result of the Bhakti movement spearheaded by the Śaivite and Vaiṣṇavite saints. A large number of temples to Śiva and Viṣṇu came to be built and the emphasis gradually shifted towards temple worship in preference to vedic sacrifices. Yet these sacrifices continued to be popular. The early Pallavas claimed exalted purity because they performed numerable vedic sacrifices, aneka aśvamedāvabhṛita pavitrī kṛita vapuṣām. They were also performers of Somayāga, Hiraṇyagarbha, Tulābhāra, etc. An early Pallava ruler, Sivaskandavarman: offered Agnishṭoma, Aśvamedha and Vājapeya sacrifices. One of the early Pāṇḍya refers to the thousand kratus (sacrifices) performed by his ancestors. Another of the same family is said to have offered homa in the sacrificial altar both morning and evening. Among the Chöḻas Rajādhirāja I, in the 11th century performed a horse sacrifice. Hiraṇyagarbha, Tulābhāra, and Bhahusuvarṇa are other sacrifices that were very popular during this period. However, from about the eighth century, temple building and endowing land and wealth for worship became universal and we hear less and less about vedic sacrifices. The later Pallavas and Chöḻas were great temple buildrs. Monumental temples come to be built during this period, and with enormous wealth placed at their disposal, the temples became centres of activity for society. Daily Life From inscriptions and literature we are able to gain a glimpse into the life of the rulers. The father gave the name to the new born child, usually the name of its grandfather on the paternal or the maternal side. In some cases father and son bore the same name. When the ruler was a subordinate, the overlord’s name was also given to the child. At the appropriate age, the prince was invested with the sacred thread and initiated into the study of the Vedas, dharma sāstras and kṣatra vidyās like horse-riding, elephant-riding, and training in Weapons. When the prince attained a certain age, an investiture ceremony was performed and thereafter he was called yuvamahārāja. The title Yuvarāja was conferred not only on the heir-apparent but also all the princes when they attained a certain age. Polygamy was not only accepted in the royal family but actively encouraged for political considerations. Girls of royal families or cheiftains were preferred and all such married girls were given the status of queens, though one amomg them was called the agramahiṣi, the chief queen. It was not uncommon among kings to have extra marital connections with some courtesans, and Such women were called bhogis. The succession was mainly patriarchal; the son of the chief queen ascending the throne. But this was not always the case, for the ablest among the sons occasionally secured the kingdom. Usually the Crown Prince, Yuvarāja participated in the administration as a probationer. He also proved his worth in Wars, especially by leading an army against opponents. Most of the Imperial Chöḻa rulers won decisive victories on their opponents while they were still Crown princes. Coronation The coronation of the king was done with great pomp and show. Vedic rites as enunciated in Brāhmaṇas were performed during this ceremony. Describing the coronation of Kulottuṅga Chöḻa, his court poet Jayankoṇḍar, states that Kulottuṅga ascended the throne to the accompaniment of Vedic chants and was crowned by Brahmins. Sacred water brought from auspicious rivers were poured over the crowned head to the accompaniment of Vedic mantras. Then the king was presented with royal insignias, such as white umbrella, sword, flag, drum, sceptre, etc. A copper plate charter states that one of the Pāṇḍyas was crowned by Agastya, their Purohita. Another copper plate inscription of the same dynasty mentions that their ancestors were crowned according to Atharva Vedic rites. While ascending the throne the prince was givan a new name, known as abhiṣekanāma. Inscriptions specifically mention such new names adopted by rulers. While, before the sixth century A.D., the vanquished was allowed to rule after paying tribute, later on conquered territories were annexed to the imerial kingdom. The kings appointed their sons and other near relatives as governors of such conquered territories, investing them with regal titles an ruled by the Kulasanga with one as its head. This system was not popular among the Pallavas, but it was widely followed by Chöḻas and the Pāṇḍyas. Joint Rule When the ruler became old or considered that the active help of his son would strengthen his hand, he chose his successor who was allowed to issue royal orders. Thus a form of joint rule was recognised among south Indian dynasties. The rulers started counting their regnal years from the date of taking over the reins of the Government. In most cases, the regnal years were mentioned. In some cases the Śaka, Kali, or local eras were also mentioned in the royal orders. Daily Life We have a few references in literature of the period to the daily life of the king. He got up quite early in the morning to the accompaniment of music and the sounding of conch and drums. After attending to daily routine, he took bath, referred to as tirumañjanam or tīrthābhiṣeką. Special musical instruments played on while the king was taking bath. Separate pavilions called tirumañjanasālais were available in the royal palaces for baths. Then the king wore yellow silken cloth; received tender dharbha grass from the hands of Brahmins, wore it is a rakṣā and then offered oblations to devas, ṛṣis and pitṛs. Then looking at the mirror he besmeared vibhūti over the forehead. Then he offered pūja to his Iṣṭadevata in a royal temple. Changing his yellow silk into white silk dhoti, he then adorned himself with ornaments and the crown. According to the traditions, the king spent the day in administration, a part of the evening in witnessing music and dance and the important consultations with his administrators The Queens At the coronation the queens were also annointed and crowned with the ruler. In all probability they were given new names. They are mostly mentioned by their real names upto about the 8th century but after wards we find their royal titles mentioned in the epigraphs. Till about the 10th century, the queens were called by various titles and often by their family names viz. Kāṇdavanamahādevi, Chöḻamahādevi, or Cheramādevi, Pāṇḍimādevi etc. When the Chöḻas were at the height of their power, the queens were given a particular title in Tamil as “Lady of the Universe”, Ulagamuḻutuṭaiyāḷ, a Tamil equivalent of Lokamahādevi. Other variations of the title are Bhuvanmuḻutumuṭaiyāḷ (Bhuvanamādevi), Dharaṇimuḻutumuṭaiyāḷ (Dharaṇimādevi), Avani muḻutumuṭaiyāḷ and also Tribhuvanamuḻutudaiyal. The later Pāṇḍyas who succeeded the Imperial Chöḻas followed suit in not only mentioning their names in their praśastis, but also calling their queens as Tribhuvamādevi, etc. Rights and Previleges With the advent of Rājarāja the Great (10th cent A.D.) a new trend is noticed in the issue of royal grants. This imperial monarch introduced long praśastis detailing his attainments in various fields, especially his conquests. This was continued by his successors who further elaborated the praśastis. Thus from the middle of the 11th century the royal pedigrees included the names of the queens who shared the throne with the rulers. The praśastis of the 12th century Chöḻas are of great interest since they detail the rights, privileges and powers wielded by the queens. The queen inherited all the royal prerogatives of her husband as a matter of right, called the rights of abhiṣeka. Among such prerogatives the right to rule is mentioned as one. This illustrates the growing influence of the queen in the royal court. Some of the Chöḻa records mention separate secretariat staff for the queens. Queens participated in public auctions, possessed property in their own names, purchased and gifted such properties, issued orders to their own secretariat staff to supervise their endowments and even signed the documents themselves. The staff of Parāntakan Kundavai, the elder sister of Rājarāja, consisted of an adhikāri, an accountant and a Writer. In Tiruvaiyāru, near Tañjāvūr, an order issued by the queen Lokamādevi, the chief queen chief queen of Rājarāja I, is recorded. Among the staff of the queens women officers shared equal powers with men in executing their comands. In Vedic yagñas and yāgas performed by men the queens were the rightful partners and were called Vëḷvikkiḻatti (Yagñapatnis). There. are references to queens participating in tulābhāra ceremonies performed by the Pallavas, Chöḻas and the Pāṇḍyas. The gold used in such sacrifices was gifted to the temples for performing worship or making other provisions. Vëḷirs Besides the three crowned rulers of the Tamil country there were a number of ancient families of chieftains called Veḷirs who were ruling small territories independently or as subordinates. There are differences of opinion about the origin of the word, Veḷir but the possibilities are that it denotes "a master of the land". Undoubtedly quite a number of these families were of indigenous leadership. They were great patrons of poets and were known for their valour and generosity. A few Veḷir families seem to have migrated from the north. Even in the sangam age, it was held that Veḷirs were born of a Yāga Kuṇḍa of a northern sage and migrated to southern India from Dvāraka in the north. Though a number of these minor families were liquidated before the sixth century A.D., a few continued with some semblance of power till the end of the 13th century. The Āys of Vënāḍu ruling near Kanyākumāri were one such family. They were called Yādavas or Vṛṣṇis and held Kṛṣṇa as their family hero. In their copper plates of the eighth century, they pay glowing tributes to Nandagopa and Yasoda. Another such family was that of the Irukkuvël, ruling in the Pudukkoṭṭai region. In the saṅgam age itself, a member of this family was considered 49th descendent of the rulere from Dvāraka. The Irukkuvëls continued to be powerful upto the end of the 13th century and were closely allied with the Imperial Chöḻas with whom they had intimate matrimonial alliances. They too were called Yādavas. Medieval literature gives the number of Veḷir families as eighteen. This number is obviously derived from such conventional expressions as 18 days of the Mahabhārata war, 18 chapters of the Gītā, the 18 purāṇas, the 18 desas and 18 gaṇas. We have no specific list of these 18 families of Veḷirs. However, during the medieval period, only a few families of this ancient Veḷirs were in the limelight. Minor Chieftains There were other families of minor chieftains who were also active during that period. One such family was the Atiya line, ruling with Tagaḍūr (modern Dharmapuri) as their capital. Identified with the Satyaputras of the Asokan Edicts, they are said to have originally belonged to the Chera family. Another family that ruled a part of northern Tamil Nadu was the Bānas, claiming descent from Mahābali Chakravarti of Purāṇic fame. They were called Perumbānādiyarasar (Bṛhad Bāna Adhirājas) or Mahābali Bānarāja. They held chieftaincy under the Pallavas and later under the Chöḻas. Adjoining their territory was the chieftaincy of the Tamil Gaṅgas of the Kānvāyanagotra, whose intimate connection with the Gangetic velley is often repeated in ions. They are said to be a branch of Kongani rulers, often called the Western Gaṅgas by historians. Between the sixth and the eigth the chieftains held fairly semi-independent rulership, though they formally acknowledged the suzeranity of their overlords, the Pallavas or the Pāṇḍyas. Though they were chieftains, they Were conferred the title of Adhirāja. With the advent of the Chöḻas, however, they were reduced to absolute submission, often holding posts of commanders under them. A new trend is witnessed from about the 10th century among the chieftains. They claimed connections with the famous centres of north India such as Chedi, Vatsa, Kaliṅga, Magada, Virāṭa, and Ayodhya. Thus we find Chedirayas, Vatsarājas, Kaliṅgarājas, Magadarājas, Virāṭarājas, Niṣādharāja, Ayodhirājas, and Gaṅgarājas, figuring as chieftains in Tamil inscriptions. Though it is possible that some of them were migrants from the north, others might have assumed such titles due to the popularity of these regions in the larger Indian context. This new trend almost overshadows the traditional families of the Veḷirs. The advent of Vijayanagara rule in the 14th century swept away all these chieftaincies, both the Veḷirs of the Saṅgam age and those that came up during the medieval period; the Vijayanagara rulers being Kannada-Telugu speakers, appointed their own relatives and commanders to govern their territories. Warrior Class We shall do well to study the rest of the society under the fourfold varṇa divisions as Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and the fourth caste. It is not that the period under review had only these four castes No, not at all; there were innumerable sub-castes, each trying to align itself with one or the other of the fourfold division. A careful analysis of the reasons for such a high number of sub-castes clearly indicate that the multiplication is not due to the law codes of the ancient Hindus, but due to geographical distribution, economic factors and influence in the royal court. On account of the wealth or influence in the administration, some people claimed a higher status in caste heirarchy than the unfortunate brethren of the same caste. Often titles and wealth conferred by the rulers also led to the establishment of the new castes. Even as early as the Saṅgam age, these tendencies have taken deep roots and were gradually envoloping whole society. But instances are not wanting where some groups, native to the region tried to retain their individuality. As an instance we may cite Eyinar also called Kuṉṟavar who were native to the soil, following their own tirbal organisations, customs and beliefs. This group was called Veṭṭuvar (hunters) Kuṉṟavar (hill tribes) or Maravars, which occupation was hunting, cattle-lifting and robbing people passing through forests or highways. The common poeple, particularly businessmen were their targets of attack. As they were not obeying the established civilised law of the country, they were called Maravars in some instances, as opposed to Aravars. A graphic discription of a Marava chieftain in the story of Kaṇṇappar is found in a Tamil work of the 12th century. He was a hunter chieftain, who later became a great devotee of Śiva. The depiction of the hunters shows that they followed their own way of worship in which the participation of a Brahmin priest had no place. An elderly woman of the same caste called Śalini was consulted for all important functions she exhorted them to offer bali to the presiding deity of the forest. The responsibility of doing the worship was also left in her hands. Two gods were specially worshipped by them. One was Vëlan, identified with Muruga (Subrhamaṇya) who was propitiated for progeny. The other was Koṟṟavai (Durga). The description of Koṟṟavai in the Silappadhikāram clearly indicates that, though Aryan laws and customs are not patently visible, some of the Aryan concepts influenced the their was of life. The description of Durga worshipped by the Eyinars shows the highest philosophical expressions of the Śāktā cult, and at the same time retaining their primitive way of worship. The story of Kaṇṇappan itself is a demonstration of the complete assimilation of Aryan ideas by these hunter tribes. But as time rolled on a considerable section of these foodgathering tribes, was slowly subjugated both by force and persuasions to accept the authority of the country. It must be admitted that, as they were originally blood-thirsty hunters. they were naturally inclined to serve as warriors and protectors of the land when they accepted the authority of law and thus provided, the cream of the states’s army. The gradual civilising movement of these tribes was accomplished by the Pallavas in the north and the Pāṇḍyas in the south. Once tamed, their services could be utilised to the best advantage of the State by making them protectors of smaller or larger administrative units, depending upon individual capacity. No doubt they were the mainstay in times of wars. Yet a small group like some of the Koravas refused to be cowed down and went on their own Way of highway robbery and hunting. Army We have innumerable references to the role of the army and its individual components. The army consisted of a number of divisions like the elephent corps (Kuñjaramallar), the cavalry, the infantry, the bowmen, the swordsmen and other divisions. They were generally named after the titles of the ruler. More than thirty regiments named after Rājarāja are known. Sometimes regiments were distinguished by territorial names like Pāṇṇippaḍai. Besides, there were special regiments who were ever ready to defend the king and his cause with their lives when occasion arose. In the Pallava period soldiers were called Bhatas and sometimes Bhṛtyas. The army itself was called Tana (Sthāna) or Senāmukha. The commander of the army was called Senāpati, Mahāsāmanta, tanaittalaiva, or daṇḍanāyaka. The special regiments which stood by the were called Velaikkārar by the Chöḻas. A similar regiment under the Pāṇḍyas of a later period were called āppattudavikaḷ A bifurcation of the army into right hand and left hand (Valaṅkai and Iṭaṅkai) divisions was effected during the Chöḻa regime, which had its repercussions in the later periods In most cases the select army comprised of the right hand division, though references to the lef hand division were not unknown. All the regiments mentioned in the Tañjavūr inscriptions of Rājarāja I, were of the right-hand hand divisions, while a left hand division is mentioned in an inscription of Vijayabāhu of Sri Lanka. Nothing is known about the origin of this peculiar system and we have no clue to determine its varying functions. This division led in course of time to divisions among castes, some calling themselves right hand and the others left hand castes. Among one and the same castes there Were left- and right-hand factions, the latter claiming a higher status. The division of castes into right-hand and left-hand sections was clearly a prerogative of the ruler. In the Vijayanagara period we have pointed references to the issue of royal orders creating right- and left-hand castes. It is not known whether this system originated from the concept of anuloma and pratiloma divisions of the Hindu law givers. It is possible that the king kept the fighters to his right and those like smiths, cooks, etc., who were to provide the soldiers with other needs in the war front to his left. This probably gave rise to this naming. The positioning of the army is called in Tamil literature Kai Vahuttal. As the soldiers commanded greater attention and respect, it came to pass that they belonged to a higher caste. These right-hand and left-hand castes were given certain privileges, like carrying their own standards, blowing conches, beating drums, etc., during their communal processions. In the Vijayanagara period the number of castes in each division is said to be ninety-six. There were frequent skirmishes between these two factions in later periods, which continued till very recent times. It is seen that the army was well-disciplined and commanded by those whose prowess was tested. The Chöḻas maintained the best army and their naval power was unrivalled in the history of India. The navy of Rājendra Chöḻa I crossed the Bay of Bengal and conquered south Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Java and the Nicobar Islands. It is also of interest to mention that the ablest army of Rājendra marched right across Kaliṅga, conquered the rulers of Dakiṣinalata, Uttralata, Vangaladesa and Dandabhukti, a feat never achieved before or after by any south Indian ruler. Rājendra himself marched upto Godavari to receive his returning Victorious army bringing with it the holy waters of the Ganga. The army had a skilled band of musicians and drummers akin to our modern military bands. Rājarāja's epigraphs record the transfer of a number of men from his military band to the Temple of Tañjāvūr. There are references in iterature of the period to professionals who gave military training to youngsters and in return were provided with land and other property. Besides taking part in war the the army took up to social service viz. looking after the endowments of the temples, etc. This is recorded in inscriptions. In fact, we learn of the part taken by the forces of the king in the civil life of the country more than details of their military life and organisations. The kings honoured their ble commanders by conferring on them titles, gifts of villages or territory and certain privileges. Āditya Chöḻa conferred the title Sembiyan Tamiḻavël on a certain Vikki Annan, who distinguished himself in wars. He was also given the privileges of palace āsana chauri, elephants, etc. We have mentioned earlier that the conferring such titles led to multiplication of castes. A number of these communities called themselves Vanniyakula Kṣatriyas. Another such title which later was considered a separate caste was Gavuḍa, Kavuṇḍa or Grāmeyaka of the sanskrit epigraphs. As owners of territoriesm, they took in course of time agriculture in peace time. Cultivators Agriculturists who formed the mainstay of the society were hightly respected. They were called Veḷḷāḷars or Karalas. Accoring to some scholars, Vëḷāḷa originally denoted those who utilised the flood waters of rivers for irrigation. But it is likely that it stands for those who cultivated earth, Veḷ i.e., earth. We have mentioned earlier Veḷirs were chieftans, a number of their family claiming Yādava lineage. There is a tradition that the Yādavas were degraded Kṣatriyas who assumed Vaiśya lineage owing to a curse of Yayāti. Their tradition accounts for the use of the same terms for chieftans, businessmen, and also cultivators. There are innumerable references in epigraphs to such usage. They were also called Bhūmi putras (maṇmakaḷ putalvar) or those who live by the plough. According to Nighaṇṭu, cultivation, cattle breeding, business, weaving and service to the twice born are listed as their professions. It is evident that they were free to chose any one of the above professions. Among the Veḷḷāḷas, a number of subjects arose, mainly as a result of royal patronage and large land holdings. Thus we have Cheṭṭis, Śreṣṭins, Nāyakas, Mudalis, Reḍḍis, Nāṭṭars, Konars and other sub-castes which were originally royal titles. Both literature and epigraphs pay glowing tributes to their generosity and greatness. They are likened to the mother in their affection and mercy. Agriculture alone is the profession, all the rest its subordinates, says a Kuraḷ. A work attributed to Kamban states that there is no higher caste than the Veḷḷāḷa. Sekkiḻar, a 12th century poet, states that the king could wield his sceptre properly only when the agriculturist ploughed the field. Being an agricultural community, the Tamils have rightly given the most prominent position to the Veḷḷāḷas. On account of poverty, some of them took to causal labour and service to other communities. Often the position of the sudra, the fourth caste, in our society is misrepresented. Even a causal study of literature and epigraphs will show that a majority of the sudras held highly respectable positions, at times enquiring into the affairs of even the Brahmins. A number of Veḷḷāḷas were in the employ of the king. A certain Parāntakapaḷḷi Vëlan was a high ranking officer under Pāṇḍya Mārañjaḍaiyan in the eighth century A.D. A certain Perungorkon Vëlan was a royal accountant in the court of Pāṇḍya Rājasimha in the ninth century A.D. More than sixty percent of the high officers were Veḷḷāḷars in the Chöḻa administration. They were given the honorific title of Muvëndavëlan. A certain Adittan Sūryan alias Teṉṉavan Mūvëndavelan was a favourite of Rājarāja the Great, who appointed him as the chief administrator of the Great temple of Tañjāvūr. A certain Vīdivitaṅkan alias Villavan was one of the Rājarāja's Perundaram (Mahādhyakṣa). Besides being royal officers, a number of Veḷḷāḷas proved to be efficient commanders, particularly under the Chöḻas. Some of them like Sekkilar served as ministers to the Chöḻa rulers. Inscriptions, particularly from the time of the Chöḻa rulers, refer to powerful agricultural guilds functioning in various parts of the country. This were called chitrameḻi periya nāḍus. Even though the members of this guild lived under different rulers, they retained their well-knit organisation and obeyed its social laws. They had their own religious praśastis, giving their aims and achievements. These state that the plough was their god. They had the figure of a plough in their flags. They called themselves Bhūmidevi putras and in a number of temples, particularly dedicated to Vishnu, set up the image of Bhumidevi and arranged for her regular worship. They erected a töraṇa in the form of a plough in one of the temples. The administration of the guild was carried on by representatives of these communities. Th representatives met as occasion demanded and took decisions on communal charities, disputes and all matters relating to their life and their decision was binding members of the community. The functioning of agricultural gulds was its height during the Chöḻa period. Some of the members of these guilds were also traders, particularly in grain. A few references are available in the conteporary literature to the day to day life of Veḷḷāḷas. At the appropriate age, the hair removing ceremony was performed for the Veḷḷāḷa boy. Then on he was allowed to learn various branches of knowledge. When the girl attained the age of twleve, she was married. Marriage in most cases was arranged by the parents. It was the custom for the parents of the boy to send some elders to the girl's parents seeking her hand in marriage. Once the marriage was agreed to, an auspicious day acceptable to both the parties was selected by punḍits. To mark the beginning of the marriage rites, a small quantity of seeds were sown in the special vessels. These would have sprouted considerably on the occasion of the marriage. This, is called Pālikai which seems to be a fertility rite. The most important. rite of the marriage was the Pāṇigrahaṇa i.e., the bridegroom taking the hand of the bride. Merchants Vaṇigas or merchants played an important role, in the life of the Tamil people. The earliest Tamil grammar, Tolkāppiyam, ascribed to the beginning of the Christian era refers to those engaged in trade as Vaiśyas. They were also called Eṭṭis, Bharatas, Cheṭṭi, Vaṇgas, etc. Six kinds of pursuits, namely vedic learning, vedic sacrifices, gifts, cultivation, cattle breeding and trade were recognised as their legitimate rights. They are mentioned as differently Vyāpāri, Vaṇiga, etc., in epigraphs and were engaged in trade and agriculture. From very early times maritime and inland trade was prominent. A number of Jaina rock-beds bearing inscriptions, dating back to the second century B.C. have been brought to light from various parts of Tamil Nadu. They record gifts to Jaina ascetics. A good number of donors of these records were Vaṇigar, dealing, in grain, Salt, iron, gold, cloth, etc., which illustrates the economic prosperity of the business community even in the pre-Christian period makes pointed references to their honesty and states that they sold their goods by telling openly their percentage of profits. Besides references to individual merchants, epigraphs mention merchant guilds from the time of pallavas. A few important guilds are mentioned quite frequently. The Maṇigrāmam, Nāṇadeśi, Chitrameḻi, Saṅkarappāḍ, are such guilds. Tamil merchants travelled to countries acros cean and maintained active contacts with other lands. The presence of such a Tamil guild in lower Thailand is attested by a Tamil inscription at Takua-pa (Talai Takkölam). The inscription dated in the reign of Pallava Nandivarman records the setting up of some images and digging a pond Avanināraṇa, named after the king by the merchantile guild, Maṇigrāmam. Their endowment was placed in the charge of a Sënāmukha. Evidently the guild maṇigrāma., was accompanied by soldiers to protect their property. The Maṇigrāma guild continued to be active in the Chola period is attested by epigraphs from Kodumbālūr and Salem, where they are seen endowing charitable rights. Another powerful autonomous corporation of merchants whose activities apparently took little or no account of political boundaries, was the Nānādeśi Tisai Āiyarattu ainūṟṟuvar group. The term stands for the five hundred of the thousand directions in all countries. This most celebrated guild was well-organised much earlier than ninth century A.D. and had a long record of achievement. The members of the guild visited many countries in the course of their trade and were respected and given a privileged positions. They received the patronage of the Imperial Cholas, and took an active part in the local administration. Their claim to have visited several countries is attested by two epigraphs. A fragmentary epigraph in Tamil, from Loboe Toewa in Sumatra, dated in the Saka era 1010 (A.D. 1080) indicates their overseas trade. In the 13th century, a Viṣṇu temple was built at Pagan in Burma, by the Nānādeśi guild and gifts were made to it by a merchant from one of the ports of the Malabar coast. A few interesting details regarding their origin and organisations are available from ephigraphs. "Born of the race of Vāsudeva, Kandali, and Kulubhadra, they were favoured by the Goddess Bhagavati, and comprised many sub divisions. Born to wanderers over many countries, they visited the Chera, Chöḻa, Pāṇḍya, Malaya, Magadha, Kośala, Saurastra, Dhamusta, Kurumba, Kamboja, Lata, Banuvara, Nepala, Ekapāda, Lambakarṇa, Stri Rajya?, Gholamukha and many other countries, and by land routes and water routes penetrated into regions of six continents. Their trade was in superior elephants, wel-bred horses, precious stones of all sorts, spices, perfumes and drugs. They sold them wholesale or hawked them about on their shoulders. They often carried their merchantise on the back of asses and buffaloes, adorned with red trappings". Discussing the agricultural guilds, we have mentioned the Chitramëḻi guild. The Nānādeśi guild also formed itself into a Chitramëḻi guild, a number of their branches owing allegiance to this great assembly. The mercantile Chitrameli guild consisted of both agriculturist called Nāṭṭars, (Viṣaya) and other traders called Nānādeśi Pañcasatas. They were residents of Paṭṭana, Puras, Ghaṭikas and Dhavālas. They had the privilege of issuing their praśastis in their epigraphs. Their sāsanas are called Tribhuvanāsraya Pañchasata vīra sāsanams. An inscription of Pirānmalai makes it clears that they adored Durga, Lakṣmi and Sarasvati. The Nānādeśi guild often assembled in temple pavilions and agreed to pay a certain amount of their sale proceeds for purposes of endowing special worships. There are a few epigraphs like the Pirānmalai inscription which detail the list of commodities traded in and the taxes levied on individual items. Besides these powerful guilds of Maṇigrāma and Nānādeśi, local business communities had their own representative assemblies, looking after their business interests. The assembly was called Nagara and their selected representatives Nagarattār. They lived in separate colonies, which were also called Nagaras. They often participated individually and collectively in the village assemblies. Brahmins The role of Brahmins, in the history and culture of Tamil land cannot be minimised. The Brahmins formed a minor section, though undoubtedly the most intellectual section of the Aryan migrants to the Tamil country. Dr Suniti Kumar Chatterjee, in his inaugural lecture at the Atom Babu Institute had demonstrated the great role played by Sage Agastya in this direction. Sage Agastya was undoubtedly the symbol and pioneer of Indianising the extreme South. The earliest available literature of the South, assigned to the first few centuries of the Christian era, shows clearly the cultural unity of the country. It was in no small measure due to the Brahman sages, who with missionery zeal emulating Agastya, crossed the Vindhyas, carrying this unifying culture. In Saṅgam literature itself, Veda-chanting Brahmins are mentioned as performing sacrifices and pursuing professions as found in other parts of India. Brahmins belonging to various gotras like Kauṇḍinya, Vātūla, Kośika, Ātreya, Kāśyapa, Bhāradvāja, Maudgalya, and Kapi, well-known in the Sangam age. They mingled freely with the local people like the other sections of the Aryan people, the Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas and Sūdras and were well-settled in various parts of the Tamil country. With the advent of the Pallavas the number of Brahminical gotras is found to be more than thirty two, a list of which is given below :
  1. 1. Sāndilya
  2. 2. Bhāradvāja
  3. 3. Gautama
  4. 4. Bādarāyana
  5. 5. Parāsara
  6. 6. Kāśуара
  7. 7. Kānva
  8. 8. Vātula
  9. 9. Aviṣṭa
  10. 10. Atreya
  11. 11. Kausika
  12. 12. Vatsa
  13. 13. Viṣṇuvṛtta
  14. 14. Ratitara
  15. 15. Maddara
  16. 16. Bahukutsa
  17. 17. Kauṇḍinya
  18. 18. Savarṇi
  19. 19. Moudgala
  20. 20. Mastala
  21. 21. Sānkrityayana
  22. 22. Kamaka
  23. 23. Kutsa
  24. 24. Kарi
  25. 25. Harita
  26. 26. Lohita
  27. 27. Vāsiṣṭa
  28. 28. Gargi
  29. 29. Agnivesya
  30. 30. Sankarṣaṇa
 The Pandya copper plates of the same period, give Bhārgava and Vana gotras as Well. In the eighth century itself, the adherents of the Āpastamba, Pravachana, Vājasaneyi, Hiraṇyakeśi, Bhaviṣya, Chandoga, Kālarasya, Agnivesya, Āsvalāyana, and Baudāyana Sūtras, sub-sects came into existence much earlier than the sixth century. They may broadly be divided into three groups Ādi Śaiva Brāhmaṇas, Vaiṣṇava Brāmaṇas and Veda-reciting Brāhmaṇas. This division is mainly due to the increasing role of temples in Tamil society. The Śaiva Brāhmaṇas were followers of Āgamic codes both in their domestic and the temple rites. Among the Vaiṣṇavites, two sub-groups were prevalent. One followed the tenets of the vedic saga Vikhanasa, and were called Vaikhānasa. Another school which seems to have had a none-vedic origin but soon assimilated vedic traits was the Pañcharātra School, before the 12th century A.D. The Vedic school of the Vaikhānasa, was mainly followed all over Tamil Nadu before the 12th century A.D. All inscriptions refer only to the Vaikhānasa form of worship in Viṣṇu temples. Though the study of the Pañcharātra System is mentioned in 11th century records the Vaikhānasa continued to be the main sect. But towards the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century the great Vaiṣṇava teacher, Rāmānuja converted a number of temples to the Pañcharātra system. Between the two schools, the Vaikhānasa was a tolerant school, while the Pañcharātra sect followed a more militant path. The third group of Brahmins was the Veda-chanting sect who later came to be called Smārtas. They followed the advaita school of Āchārya Śaṅkara. During the earlier period of the Pallava-Pandya rule, we find a number of royal charters gifting villages to one or more Brahmin families settling them there and apportioning the produce to each family. Such gifts to a single person, on account of his attainments, was called Ekabhoga Brahmadeya and to a number of families was simply called Brahmadeyas. Copper plate charters of this period also record gifts of land or villages to Brāhmaṇas as their own property on the occasions of solar or lunar eclipses. With the advent of the Chöḻas, a very great number of Brahmin families were settled by the kings or queens as an adjunct of the temples. Such colonies were called Chaturvedimaṅgalams. In most cases, the Chaturvedimaṅgalams were named after the kings or queens and bear ample testimony to the personal interest of the royal families in active Brahmanical colonisation. The Pallavas brought a considerable number of Brahmin families from the Kannada-Telugu region. The Cholas induced a still larger number of Brahmin families, often mentioned in thousands, to migrate to the Tamil land from Various parts of India, like Kashmir, Aryadeśa, Madhyadeśa, Karvan and Western India, in Lata, and Gauḍadeśa in the east. This cultural migration reached its zenith in the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. Besides encouraging the Brahmins to settle in their country, the kings took personal interest in the organisation of their educational institutions called ghaṭikas, vidyāsthānas or Śālas, some of which like the ghaṭika of Kāñci assumed international repute. A Śāla in the extreme south, near Trivandrum, was functioning effectively in the eighth century A.D., and we find a local ruler, Karuanan Tadakkan, establishing a similar Śāla at another place named after his title Pārthivasekhara. The charter mentioning the establishment of this Śāla is interesting in many ways as it refers to the subjects taught in the Śālas, the number of students admitted, the mode of admission, the method of study and the rights and duties of the students, etc., which throw valuable light on the constitution and functioning of these educational institutions. Besides the Pallava epigraphs, considerable number of Chöḻa inscriptions refer to such institutions and the subjects of study. Brahmins served in various capacities at the royal court. A number of Brahmins served as ministers to the kings and were honoured by the kings with such titles as Brahmādhirājas. A certain Brahmādirājan served as a mukyamantri of the Pallava ruler, Nandivarman. A certain Haricharaṇa Kamalaśekharan was Narendra mantri to the Pāṇḍya ruler Parāntaka Vīranārāyaṇa. A certain Ariruddha Brahmadhirāya was the celebrated Amātya of a Chola ruler. On account of their mastery of the Dharmaśāstras. Brahmins selected by the rulers to advise them on matters of law and such adhikāris were called Darmādyakṣa or Dharmopadeṣṭa. References are not wanting in epigraphs o the Brahmin Rājagurus of the Pāṇḍyas and Imperial Chöḻas. Like Droṇācārya of the Mahābharata, a considerable number of Brahmins, distinguished themselves in warefare and served under the Pāṇdyas and Chöḻas as mahāsāmantādhipati or Senāpatis. The unparalled success of the Imperial Chöḻas was in no small measure to these Brahmins. Almost all the Chöḻa rulers of the medival period had Brahmin senāpatis. The Senapati of Rājarāja the Great, was a certain Kṛṣṇan Rāman alias Mummudichöḻa Brahma Marāyan. Other posts held by the Brahmins were administrative offices and the posts of village accountants. The Brahmins as a community lived in colonies and had one of the most perfected systems of self-government by electing their own assemblies. Each Brahmin village was divided into wards depending on its size, and each ward elected its own representative to its assembly. The assemblies of the Brahmin settlements were called Sabhās, Mūla Pariṣads, Gaṇas, etc.; the term Sabha being the commonest. The assemblies were divided into sub-committees to look after the various functions of the village. They had a community hall sabhāmaṇḍapa in which they met and transacted their business. We have a historic record coming from Uttiramerūr (near Madras) which dates to the tenth century A.D. The record is one of the most outstanding records of India. It gives the qualifications and disqualifications of the members of the assembly, the method of elections, the constitution of sub-committees, etc. Tamil land was a land of democracy wherein such highly organised village assemblies functioned effectively from early periods to the end of 16th tury A.D. A great body of literature exists which throws valuable light on the day to day life of the Brahmins. There is no need to go into these details since it is seen that they respective sūtras. ARTISANS The artisans and craftsmen played their own role in th development of Society. Golsmiths, coppersmiths, blacksmiths, architects, sculptors, carpenters and jewl-setters are some of the artisans who had a significant placein society and are referred to in epigraphs and literature. All of them belonged to the common category of Kammāḷas, (Karmakāra in Skt). Ancient Niganṭus call them Silpins, Tvaṣṭa, Śthapati, Yavanas, Akkaśāliyas and Chitrakāras. Two significant words, Yavanar and Pāñchālas applied to them, are interesting. It is well-known that Yavana craftsmen have left their mark on the artistic traditions of India. That the yayanas were held in very high esteem for their artistic achievements, is proved by Avantisundari Katha, a work of the eight century A.D. which refering to Lalitālaya, an Indian śilpin states that he surpassed even the Yavanas in artistic skill, Yavananapyatesayanena. The second term Pāñchālas, also is significant. Even in modern times, the Kammāḷas in their traditional stories, trace their origin to the Pāñchāla region Evidently, a group, if not all, had migrated to the south from the Pāñchāla region. Like the agricultural and mercantile guilds, the craftsman had their own guild which looked after their communal interests. The guild had its own praśasti in which they claim Uttarapati as their original home. They had the figure of makara in their flag. Their traditional accounts and inscriptions point to these mixed origin, and they were evidently progenies of anuloma and pratiloma marriages. The Hindu law givers have reserved various the Saṅkṛṇjātis. Till very recent times Kammāḷas called themselves Pañchavarṇas. Of all the Kammāḷas, the goldsmiths were the richest. But the śthapatis, the silpins and architects commanded greater respect, as they were honest and followed a permanent visible art. The architects Wеге divided traditionally into four classes as śthapatis, (superintending architects) stone masons, surveyors and sculptors. In inscriptions they are generally called Tachcha or Maha Tachcha. Innumerable references are found in inscriptions, to them and in some cases the names of builders of great temples are also peserved. We have, thus, the names of the workers at the famous of Māmalapuram. The architect who designed and erected the Great Temple of Tañjāvūr was Rājarāja Mahātachchan. Besides the erection of temples, they were employed in inscribing royal charters on copper plates and stones and were honoured with suitable titles and lands. One of the copper plates of Pāṇḍyas mentions a tachcha who manufactured weapons for the king. Some of these artisans were highly accomplished poets. In one case we have an artisan composing a royal praśasti of a Pāṇḍya. There is an interesting epigraph of the 12th century A.D. throwing valuable light on their life and profession. A dispute seems to have arisen among the various sections of this community. Brahmins, well-versed in various law codes, assembled in the local village and discussed the dispute. Various law codes were cited by these Brahmins and all their citations are found recorded in this epigraph.
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