Dr.R.Nagaswamy
#A0522D
Asoka and the Tamil Country: The Evidence Of Archaeology
INTRODUCTION
Hartmut Scharfe, in his recent work "investigations in Kautalya's Manual of Political Science"--(revised) published, Verlog 1993, after examining almost all arguments so far advanced to date Kautilya's 'Artha sastra', ranging from 3rd cent. B.C. to 4th cent. A.D., comes to the conclusion, that the text in its present form could be dated to 1st or preferably to 2nd cent. A.D. (p. 293).
Whatever may be the merits or demerits of this arguments, one thing is clear from his presentation, that many scholars have found serious difficulties in accepting 3rd cent. B.C., as the age of Chandra Gupta Maurya as the date of this text.
I may mention that one of the important problems facing us as epigraphists is the reference to "sasana" in the Artha sastra. For example it says that
"Sasana pradhana hi rajanah, tan mulatvat sandhi vigrahayor" (2.10.2)
i.e. kings, principally depend on edicts for war and peace.
Tasmat amatya-sampadopetah sarva-samaya-vid, asu granthah Caru-aksharah Lekhanavacana-samarthah lekhakah syat. (2.10.2)
i.e. only, who is endowed with the excellances of an officer (mantri) conversant with all conventions, quick in drafting, with beautiful handwritings, capable of reading written documents, should be (made) a scribe.
Thus the whole chapter is on written documents and a scribe. There are several passages also in other chapters, that emphasize, the written documents. But we are yet to come across any indisputable evidence of written script, before the time of Asoka. The absence of any document (or edict) prior to the time of Asoka, would cast doubt on the B.C. date of the text, even if one concedes some knowledge of writing earlier. The popularity of writing to the extend mentioned in the 'Artha sastra' is not attested by documents prior to Asoka.
It is possible that the science of artha, was also verbally transmitted for some centuries as in the case of Vedas and Unpanishads and when writing became the norm, got reduced to writing, incorporating also contemporary concepts. We are obliged to accept 1st--2nd cent. A.D. as the possible date of the Artha sastra as it exists today, as suggested by Hartmut Sharf.
This line of argument has one important aspect to be studied from the Tamil regions. So far, scholars have been dating Sangam Tamil poems from 3rd cent. B.C. to 1st cent. A.D., though the learned professor Nilakanta Sastri has always been suggesting first two centuries of the A.D. as the date of Sangam classic.
I have shown that the recent archaeological excavations conducted in Tamil Nadu, and the antiquities found in the past 20 years, point out that the sangam classics could now be dated to the age when the Roman contact reached a substantial state, that is 1st to 2nd cent. A.D.
If the present Artha sastra is also datable to that period, one should now re-examine the corelations. Before examining this, we may notice some of the reent arcaheological and other finds.
KARUR EXCAVATIONS
Among the most important places that have yielded valuable results in recent years, Karur, the head quarters in Trichy distsrict is of utmost importance.
Situated on the banks of the river An-porunai, now called Amaravati, the town Karur and its surrounding have been yielding Roman Coins-gold and silver in hundreds as Treasure Troves for the past two hundred years. It has epigraphs from 8th cent. A.D. mentioning the town both as "Vanci" and "Karur". It is also mentioned in Brahmi inscriptions, found at Pukalur, situated ten kilometres away from this town. What is more, three generations of ruling Chera monarchs, are mentioned in a Tamil Brahmi inscription, at Pukalur. There has been a long debate among scholars whether Karur is identical with Vanci the Capital of the Cheras of the Sangam age. It was becoming clear that this Karur was the capital of the ancient Cheras.
Two important events, have further settled the issue of the Chera capital as this town. The town was excavated under my guidance. As it is a very flourishing industrial town adequate space for horizontal excavation, was not available. A few trenches were laid, at different places to assess its archaeological potential. The excavation yielded a continuous occupation of over two thousand years, beginning from 3rd-2nd cent. B.C. Among the finds, inscribed pot sherds, with Tamil Brahmi writings, were found along with amphora of Mediterranean region, in deposits assignable to 1st-2nd cent. A.D. The occurrence of Rouletted ware, Arretine ware, and amphorae with double handles etc., point to the Roman contact with the site. Other finds include Roman silver coin, much corroded, and indigenous copper coins square in shape, with elephant on one side and the royal emblem of 'bow' on the other. The occurrence of sherds with Tamil Brahmi script in the stratigraphical level of 1st-2nd cent. A.D., give a firm chronology to the Tamil Brahmi script. The Pukalur Chera inscription could also now be firmly dated to 1st to 2nd cent. A.D. The absence of inscribed sherds in the pre-Christian levels may also be noted.
The second event of considerable importance, is the find of large number of coins, inscribed seals, beads, etc. including Roman gold coins, on the banks of Amaravati. These finds are almost phenomenol. Several hundred coins, have been reported. Some of the seals, carry names in Tamil Brahmi characters. Among several such finds, is a unique gold ring showing a couple of extra-ordinary beauty, recalling mature Amaravati sculptures of Andhradesa. Assignable to first to 2nd cent. A.D., this gold ring is a pointer to the extensive art and cultural contact, Karur, the apital of the Cheras, had with the rest of India.
Other important finds include some Chera coins, bearing the names of the Chera rulers in Tamil Brahmi script. Kol-irumporai, Makkodai, Kuttuvan kodai, are the three such coins. It is significant that these coins are issued in imitation of Roman coins, with the head of the ruling king resembling the heads of Roman emperors. Further these Chera rulers who have issued the coins, are mentioned in the Tamil Sangam classics. They obviously ruled only when the Roman contact was very active, from the time Tiberius. The Sangam classics themselves, could be firmly dated to 1st and 2nd cent.C.E. The Roman impact on Tamil court has been far more deeper than has been hitherto felt.
The firm dating of the Sangam classics, open up new vistas in the study of Tamil culture and its Pan Indian contact.
ALAGANKULAM
Alagankulam, at the mouth of the river Vaigai, near Ramesvaram, is another important centre, that was excavated in recent times. The city of Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas, is situated on the banks of this river Vaigai. The excavations at Alagankulam, were conducted under my directions, that yielded antiquities of considerable interest. Amphora, rouletted ware, inscribed pot sherds with Tamil Brahmi script, and stamped pottery have been found. Among the pot sherds, two varieties deserve special attention. A large quantity of pot sherds were found with a fine red polish, resembling the Arretine ware. These pot sherds are identified with the help of British Museum experts, as "Northern African red ware", also called "Tunisian ware", and are datable to 2nd-3rd cent.CE. The second type of pottery is the Northern Black polished ware-the NBP associated with the Mauryas. The occurrence of NBP, almost from the 3rd cent.BCE, as revealed by stratigraphy, shows that the extreme South of Tamil Nadu, Ramesvaram, was in contact with the Mauryas of the North from Asokan times, if not earlier. NBP has also been reported from Sri Lanka in recent times.
The other significant find at Alagankulam, was a Roman Copper coin of Valentine II, issued from Antioch, in Syria in 380 A.D. The coin has been found in a stratified level and is thus of great value for chronology. That the Romans have been in contact with the Tamils even in the 4th and 5th cent.CE, is thus attested. As Alagankulam lies at the mouth of the river Vaigai, it served obviously as an important port of the Pandyas.
The other ancient Port of the Pandyas, Korkai, mentioned in the work of the classical geographers of the west and the Sangam Tamil work, was also excavated by me earlier. This has yielded NBP ware, attesting to the Mauryan contact.
JAMBAI-THIRUKKOYILUR
Thirukkoyilur in the northern part of Tamil Nadu, was the capital of the chieftains, Malaiyamans of the Sangam age. A certain Thiru-mudi-k-kari, figures prominently in Sangam works as a liberal patron and an ally of the Chera. This place has sprung into Arcaheological prominance, by two rcent discoveries. Near this town, were found a large hoard Roman gold coins,-over 200 coins were recovered by the Police, though it is believed a considerable number disappeared. As many as 12 Roman emperors are represented in these coins, beginning from Tiberius (14-37 A.D.) to that of Calcalla (211-212 A.D.). The coins seen to have been used for jewellery and recent studies seem to indicate they were copies. Whatever their nature be, Roman gold continued to pour into the Tamil country upto the 3rd cent.CE.
The other important find is an epigraph, noticed at Jambai, near this town, by my student, and read by me for the first time. The record is a single line edict, recording an abode (Jaina) caused to be made by Atiyaman Neduman Anci, the Satyaputra. The language of the record is a mixure of Tamil and Prakrit and reads :--
"SATIYAPUTO ATIYAN NETUMAN ANCI CEYIVITTA PALI".
This record settles the issue of who the Satyaputras, mentioned by Asoka, were. That they were the Atiyamans, a feudatory chiefs mentioned in the Sangam classics is beyond doubt. The inscription assignable to first cent.CE, mentions the Atiya Chief Nedumam Anci, a hero celebrated in the Sangam classics. It is known that Asoka, mentions Satyaputras in his inscriptions along with the Cholas, Pandyas and Kerala putras. The Satyaputras weilded sufficient power in the time of Asoka (3rd cent.BCE) almost on par with the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. However the Atiyaman, mentioned in the Jambai record is assignable to first cent.CE, and probably was a descendent of the dynasty. That would show they had a rule, though as a minor chiefs, for over 300 years. This Atiyaman was ruling with Takadur (modern Dharmapuri) in Salem District as his capital. The presence of his record near Thirukkoyilur, the capital of the Malaiyaman, shows that this region was under the Atiyaman when the edict was issued. Surprisingly, the Sangam Classic, refers in glowing terms, to the sack of Thirukkoyilur by the Atiya, a remarkale confirmation to the hisstory of the Sangam Tamil works.
SANGAM TAMILS
Recent archaeological and epigraphical discoveries have shown that the Sangam Tamil Classics, contain for more factual historical material, than hitherto realised and deserve to be studied from All Indian perspective, especially on the nature of state, judiciary, economy, society and religious practises. There has been a distorted emphasis, on a culture, said to be independent, of the pan Indian culture, based on irrelevant and unscientific material. It would not be possible to go into all these aspects in this paper. A few points of telling nature are indicated from the Sangam agae.
The Sangam Tamils accepted the superiority of the Vedas and were guided by the Smrities in their Statecraft, judiciary, religious beliefs, as in birth, marriage, and death rites, and worship of the Gods.
Whenever the Sangam Tamils thought of the country, they speak of Indian continent as a whole, from the Himalayas in the north, the Kanyakumarai in the south, the Bay of Bengal (called Sagara) in the east and the ocean (Arabian sea) in the west. This is spoken of with reference to the Pandya. Such a concept is repeated in several poems and that too while referring to very early kings for example the early Chera Utiyan Cheral is sung, pointing to the region lying between Himalayas in the North and the Potiyil mountain in the south. The poet sings that the antelopes shall sleep, in the light of the three sacrificial fires (the Vedic fires-Ahavaniya, Garhapatya and Dakshinagni) in which Vedic Brahmins perform Yajnas in the evening as in the Himalayas and the Potiyil hills (puram-2).
The kings held the Vedic Brahmins in very great esteem and saluted them. The Pandya Palyagasalai Mudukudimi Peruvaludi, bowed down before the Brahmins well-versed in the four Vedas (Puram-6). He also worshipped in the temple of the three eyed Lord Siva, who is called a muni-Rshi. Pointed references to the four Vedas are found in many verses. One of the poet addressing the king, states that his ministers shall remain faultless with their steadfast assistance, even if the path of the four Vedas slip, a clear indication of the high value attached to the four Vedas. The Vedic path is called Veda-neri. It also shows that the judicial and administrative system was based in the Vedic injunctions in the Tamil country in the beginning of the Common era (Puram-2).
The Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas performed Vedic sacrifices. A Pandya king planted several yupasthambas after completing many Vedic yagas by pouring ghee as ahuti, prescribed by the four Vedas. Some of the kings are addressed as Chakravartins. The king is said to possess the nature of the Panca-bhutas, the patience to bear the burden of the people, like the earth; deep deliberations like the expansive sky; destructive striking power like the fire; and cool breeze to the people like waters.
A Chera king is said to be praised, unitedly by people of the countryside, forests, hills and mountains, situated within Himalayas in the north, Kanyakumari in the south, and the eastern and western oceans. He is eulogised as one who punishes the wicked, protects the subject, enriches the treasury and administers impartial justice (Puram-17). It is almost a Tamil rendering of what Atri in his dharmasastra says as
Rama Jois I 606
The Choka king Ilam-Cet-Cenni is said to understand those adoring him, does not listen to slandering, personally enquiries into disputes, and having evaluated the evidences properly, punishes appropriately and shows compassion towards penitants. All these are qualities mentioned again and again in the Dharma sastras. That the king is personally responsible for the administration of justice after due deliberations is mentioned by Katyayana
The Tamil Sangam poem, gives almost a translation as
"Ni mey kanta Timai Kanin oppa nadi attaka orutti"
shows the statecraft as enunciated by the Smrtikaras was strictly enforced by the king.
Some of the statements found in Asokan edict are found in Sangam Tamil works.
A Chera is adviced, that he should not go to hell like those who do not possess love and grace, but should protect his subjects as his children.
"Kaval Kulavi Kolpavarin ompumatti" (Puram 5)
Asoka says
He also says
Asoka had unshakable faith in svarga
Similarly a verse addressed to Pandya Neducenzhiyan, speaks of both this world and the other world.
Kautilya says that a small land, capable of yielding crops is far better than a vast waste land. The same thought is mentioned in a Sangam poem.
"Vast land, says the work, ever depending on rains is not suitable for king's exertion, he should improve irrigation and bring lands under cultivation, for those who provide food are verily the ones who give life, and food is obtained by cultivataing the fields" (Puram 18).
As has been shown above, and there are several corelations between Sangam poems, and Mauryan society, the Tamil poems give greater insight into Indian society, as a whole. Before we go on to the next stage in Tamil society, a few words found in Tamil Sangam works may be noted. These words, which are of vital importance to the understanding of Tamil society are essentially northern words, prakrit. The Tamil words and their equivalents are given below.
Words
Tamil
Prakrit or Sanskrit
Aracan::(Raja Skt)king
Vanikan:merchant
Kuti:subject
Patai:(bhata Skt)soldier or army
Veda: sacred Vedic hymns
Mantiram: (mantra Skt) sacred hymn
pali: (bali Skt)
Kavaca:sheild
Pahu:(bahu Skt) arm
Muka: face
Kol:(danda Skt):rule,punishment
Tayam:(dayam Skt) share, right
Karpu:(kalpa Skt) enjoined
Pokam:(bhogam Skt): enjoyment
Kalam:(field)
Mandalam:territory
Ulakam:(loka Skt) world
etc.
All these would indicate that by the first--2nd cent. CE, the kingship, administration, judiciary, economy, social and religious faiths of the Tamil country are the same found in all parts of India. They are based on Vedas and Smritis and is Vaidika marga.
The main constituents of the society are the King, the Brahmin acarya, Judicial officers, the Commanders, (ministers)Amatyas, territorial administrators, the cultivators and others.
PULAMKURUCHI
In this connection, a remarkable epigraph in Tamil, from Pulamkuruchi in the Pudukkotai region deserves notice. (Read and published by me for the first time in 1981). The inscription, is dated in the 3rd cent. CE. There are three segments of the inscriptions. The central one is damaged fully, the first one is damaged at the beginning while the third is in good shape. The record is dated in the year, one hundred ninety two, probably Saka era, and was issued by the king Koc-cendan-Kurran. It mentions his commander in chief, who caused three temples to be erected, two temples to Puranic deities-Devakulas, and the third probably to a Jain Tirthankara. The records refer to gifts of lands and revenue to the temples and also regulations stipulated for those worshipping in the temples. The endowments were placed under the protection of several officers, owners of Brahmadayas, Chiefs of territorial divisions, protectors of cultivable fields, regulators of Brahmadaya endowments etc. There is also mention of protectors of villages, legal executors, secret officers, soldiers, treasurers and others.
The records mention exemption from certain levies.
The king's ordr was orally issued, which was heard by three high ranking officers. The order was brought to the village, and drafted by another officer and finally inscribed by a scribe.
The record mentions several Brahmadaya lands endowed to Brahmins. One of the village bears the name Mangalam, technical word for Brahmin settlement called Caturvedi mangalam in later periods. The temples of Gods are called Devakulam. While a monastry is called Tapata-p-palli, regular territorial divisions are called Nadu-Pandi Nadu and Kongu Nadu are mentioned. The owners of the Brahmadaya villages are called Brahmadaya-Kilavar (Brahma-daya-Vrddhas). Mention has been made of the commander-in-chief, Padai-t-talaivan. There are references to aram-neri ceyvar, equal to Dharma maha-matras.
There are several other factors that show the state-structure in Tamil nad was the same as found in other parts of India. (see appendix for the translation of this important record from Pulamkuruci.)This document reflects the state of life in Tamilnadu 3rd cent as it is dated in 280
A record from Hirahadahalli,issued in the fourth cent., by a Pallava ruler, Siva-skandavarman, shows the continuity of the concepts of state and rulership. The record in prakrit was issued from Kanchipuram.
The later history of Tamil Nadu is well known.
Thus from Archeological, eppigraphical and literary sources, it is seen that Tamil Nadu was permeated by the same pan-Indian found in other parts of India, governing the state and life of the people and that was Vaidic in nature.
PULAMKURUCHI INSCRIPTION NO. 1
(This is greatly damaged at the beginning.)
In the year one hundred ......
...... Wet land and dry land and Vellerran mangalam
...... both the banks
...... Cirraiyur, a brahmadaya in (the territorial division) Kudalur Nadu.
...... Pula-t-tevan who had the rights over Brahmadayas, Landlordship (Karanmai) and miyatchi, sold (after receiving the price) the dry land and cultivable land named Katanga-vayal in that village.
...... the rightful ownership of Brahmadayas in Brahmadaya villages, and ownership in Brahmadaya, Landlordship.
...... The wet and dry lands enjoyed under Brahmadaya ownership and also under Karanmai (season (crops),
his right in Pandi nadu and Konganadu
the rights over threshing floors and melanmai rights his tax dues on (cattle) irrigation
...... the owner.
Owners of Brahmadayas, the protectors of Territorial divisions, the protectors of cultivable land (or out posts) and protectors of Salt yielding (Uppuru Kappar)villages, the regulators of Brahmadaya endowments, and Tattaman, should levy on each count, one thousand six hundred Kanam.
This was received (heard) by Inanguman, owner of Nallam, who was a ulaviyap-perum tinai. Ilam-Kurram, a shareholder of Nallam, who was a ulaviya p-perum-tinai of Alattur, Kanguman, a judge(manradi)
TRANSLATION OF SEGMENT III
One hundred and ninety second year of king, Cendan-Kurran; day 36th; month Tai; 5th day! the great commander (named) Enkuman son of Marukan--of Kadalakam caused the following to be erected.
1. The temple (Devakulam) erected on the hill Paccericinmalai, situated in Velkuru, in the (territorial division) Ollaiyur Kurram.
2. The temple (Devakulam) erected at Vilamar in the (territorial division) Mutturruk kurram, and
3. The temple (Kottam) of Vaci Devanar in the Tapata-p-palli (in the monastry) situated to the north of the tank, named ulaviyattan at Matirai;
These were taken under their protection for administration, by the four-old tinais (Departments), by those incharge of inner services of the palace, and by the royal treasurers.
Except those who were appointed, for the above institutions, after due deliberation, by the protectors of the village, the legal executors, the secret officers, the soldiers, and the treasurers incharge of administering endowments, others should not officiate as priests.
Among them only the descendents of those who were appointed at Velkuru by the Lord, who died at Kudalur, should become the legal family (to worship) to the temple, erected on top of Paccericilmalai.
Others who do, except the prescribed services, wrongful acts to that temple, should be fined.
The king was pleased to order the same being inscribed.
This was received (heard)by Inanguman, the Chief of Nallam, a ulaviya-p-perum-tinai.
Kiram kari ... arukilan, ulaviya-p-perum-tinai and Kumaran pondai of Ambar, a ulaviya-p-perum-tinai.
Taman Kari Kannan, a writer of documents, heard (received) this order, came and made this proclamation.
I, Nariyan-Nariyan-Kari, of Vennatu, wrote this final document, as decreed.
ASOKA AND TAMILNAD--SELECT REFERENCES
1. Hartmut Scharfe, Investigation in Kautilya's Manul of Political Science, Weisbaden, 1993.
2. Ramachandra Dikshitar, V. R., The Mauryan Polity, (reprint), Delhi, 1993.
3. Sircar, D.C., Early Indian Political and Administrative Systems, (ed.), Calcutta, 1972.
4. Sircar, D.C., Asokan Studies, Calcutta, 1979.
5. Radhakumud Mukherjee, Asoka, (reprint), Delhi 1972.
6. Kangle, R. P., The Kautilya's Arthasastra, (reprint), Bombay, 2 volumes, 1969.
7. Nagaswamy, R., "An Outstanding Epigraphical discovery in Tamilnad.," paper presented at the 5th World Tamil Conference, Madurai, Jan. 1981.
8. Nagaswamy, R., Roman Karur, Madras, 1995.
9. Patirru Pattu, (ed.), U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, 6th Edition, Madras, 1957.
10. Purananuru, (ed.), U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, 6th Edition, 1963.
11. Rama Jois, Legal and Constitutional History of India, 2 vols., Bombay, 1990.
12. Narayanan, M. G. S., "The Vedic, Puranic and Sastrics, elements in Tamil Sangam Society and Culture," in Essays in Indian Art, Religion, and Society, (ed.) by K. M. Srimali, Delhi, 1987.
13. Nilakanta Sastri, K. A., "Sanskrit Elements in Early Tamil Literature," in Essays in Indian Art, Religion, and Society, (ed.) by K. M. Srimali, Delhi, 1987.
14.Krishnamurthy Sangam coins?
15. Mahadevan.I