Dr.R.Nagaswamy
#6B8E23
Kalamukhas and an Interesting Dakshinamurti Image
An interesting sculpture of Siva seated and now worshipped as Gaulisvara in the Adipurisvara temple, Thiruvorriyur near Madras has received the attention of the scholars, most of whom have identified the image with Lakulisa. The identity of the sculpture needs evaluation in the light of further study, which is attempted here.
The Sculpture
A description of the sculpture may be set forth at the outset. Siva is seated in Padmasana with four arms. In the upper right arm he holds a trisula; (the sula part is broken) In the upper left is kapala.* The lower left is held across the chest and the lower right in Vyakhyanamudra, held near the right chest. The Lord wears a broad upavita and two necklaces - one a kantika, made of sphatika or rudrakshas and the other a broad necklace. Siva is shown with a high Jatamakuta and a crested face-band. The eyes are broad, wide open and the third eye shown prominently. Sphatika kundalas adore the ear-lobes. The Padmasana, the teaching pose of the lower arms and the lower shaft of the trisula held in the upper right arm, have led scholars to identify this sculpture with Lakulisvara. The resemblance with Lakulisvara is certainly striking.
The sculpture should be studied in association with two other sculptures, one found in the niche of the neck portion (Griva) of the same temple and the other on a pillar in the same temple. The niche sculpture in the griva facing the south, is similar made of stone, seated in Padmasana, with four arms, the upper arms carrying sula and kapala and the lower in Vyakhyana mudra across the chest. The upper right holds clearly a sula attesting to the fact that the object held in the upper right arm of Gulisa is also sula and not dlanda which would preclude the identification (of the Gaulisa Sculpture) with Lakulisa. The sculpture in the Griva, occupies the position where Dakshinamurti images are seen in other temples.
The sculpture in bas-relief on a pillar assignable to the 13th Century in the same temple also resembles in every detail the Gaulisa figure. The sculpture is evidently an image which was greatly influenced by the Lakulisa image yet was not a Lakulisa.
It is therefore necessary to trace in the temple inscriptions, literature and traditions, the existence of a system of Saivism, that could help us in identifying the sculpture. The second point worthy of investigation is the system, that influenced the builders as the temple was being raised. Since the sculpture is found as an integral part of the structure, it is obvious, the cult influenced the construction.
A certain Caturanana Pandita, was responsible in inspiring the Chola Emperor, Rajendra, to build the temple. The inscription on the south base of the temple, refers to the construction of the temple built of black granite, as a Tritalavimana, with embellishments by a certain architect Ravi, also known as Virachola Taksha, under the orders of the Emperor, Rajendra at the instance of Chaturanana Pandita. (The Thiruvorriyur temple was in existence from 6th century A.D., if not earlier. What was now done under the orders of Rajendra, was a rebuilding of the temple from the base to the finial)
The recluse Caturanana Pandita, who was responsible for the reconstruction, belonged to a monastry of the same name 'Caturanana Pandita matha', which was established by a Commander of the Chola - Rajaditya in the 10th Century A.D. The Caturanana matha continued to be active till 13th Century is attested by epigraphs.
A succession of Caturanana Panditas served as the heads of the Matha and wielded considerable influence in the administration of the temple. In 1175 A.D., under the rule of Rajadhi Raja Chola II, one Chaturanana Pandita and one Vagisa Pandita who was expounding the 'Somasiddhanta' were present in a festival in which the king himself was also present. The above two, also figure as signatories to the documents in the temple.
Prof. K. A. N. Sastri holds this 'Somasiddhanta system' propounded the doctrine of the Kapalika school of Saivism from a reference to it in the Sanskrit text 'Prabhoda Candrodaya'. Mr. M. Arunachalam holds that Somasiddhanta, was the system expounded by Soma Sambhu, the author of a paddhati.
David N. Lorenzen has discussed the 'Soma Siddhanta' in his excellent work, "The Kapalikas and Kalamukhas". Lorenzen writes, "The Kalamukha sect of the Saivite ascetics inhabited the Karnataka region mainly during the 11th, 12th and early 13th Century A.D. The name Kalamukha, sometimes spelt as Kalamukha, may refer to a practice of marking their foreheads with a black streak. Judging from the large number of epigraphs recording donations to Kalamukha temples and mathas, these ascetics must have wielded considerable influence in the region. Unfortunately few indication of their beliefs and rituals survive apart from the information which can be gleaned from these epigraphs."
An interesting Sanskrit work called "Sarva Siddhanda Viveka" is available in part, cited in a Tamil work called 'Jnanavarana Vilakkam'. The Tamil work itself was composed in the middle 17th Century A.D. and so the Sanskrit work 'Sarva Siddhanta Viveka,' should be earlier than that date. This text gives the outline of several Hindu Sub-Sects particularly among the Saivites. It gives in a nut-shell, the philosophy and rites of the schools like Kalamukha, (furnishing, a further insight into this systems). A study of these citation is necessary to identify the sculpture of Gaulisa.
Saiva, Pasupata, Vama, Bhairava, Mahavrati and Kalamukha are considered inner sub-sects.
Suprabhedagama mentions four Saiva sub-sects and further sub-divides them into gentle and wild, those that emanated from the benign face of Siva and the other from the terrific face. The Saiva is the gentle from and the rest are ghora sub-sects.
The Soma Sect is also called 'Siddhanta' in another place
The above citations, show, Soma and Soma Siddhanta are identical and different from other schools which are Saiva, Pasupata and Lakula. That even Pasupata and Lakula are considered different schools should be noted.
KALAMUKHAS
The text "Sarva Siddhanta Viveka" gives the following information about Kalamukha Sect.
The Kalamukhas wear Spphatika Kundala in the ears, besmear red sandal on their face and body. They recognise three entities, Pati, Pasu and Pasa. The Supreme Lord, Pati is Rudra - Mahadeva and not Bhairava. His manifestation is only an amsa of Rudra. This Rudra who is the Mulavigraha (i.e. the main deity) appears in forms like Dakshinamurti. Though Sadasiva is the ultimate Lord he is called by different names, according to his functions. Pasu is also of three kinds. Mala and Maya are the Pasa. This world is Maya. Siva is adored by Pasus for the removal of Pasa, on ashtami, Caturdasis, and Soma vara (Mondays). After due intiation, the devotee should observe rites as for Sivaratri. When the Karmas are equalised and the grace of Sakti is bestowed, the individual soul becomes purified by constant observances. The individual souls are like the stars, and Lord Siva is like the Sun. The union of the Soul with Siva is called the ultimate release (Para-moksha). The Commentator 'Velli ambala Vana', citing the above verses gives an important citation as:- "This system is also called 'Soma Saiva' by some people" That the Kalamukhas adore Rudra as the ultimate God, besmear their body with red sandal, wear sphatika kundalas (ear rings) and hold Dakshinamurti as a manifestation of Rudra.
We have seen that in the temple of Thiruvorriyur, a certain Vagisa Pandita was giving discourses on Soma-siddhantam, attesting to the fact that the Kalamukhas were influential in the Thiruvorriyur temple. Two factors deserve special attention at this stage. The occurrence of this unique image in the southern Devakoshta of the temple, helps us in identifying it with Dakshinamurti. Since it resembles Lakulisa in every aspect except the absense of Urdhvamedra and the Shaft,(Lakuda), we are right in identifying it with Dakshinamurti, influenced by the Lakulisa image and concept. It has been noted earlier, that the Somasiddhantins hold Rudra Mahadeva as the Supreme Lord who manifests as Dakshinamurti. That the Kalamukhas and Pasupatas shared a large body of common base in the teachings of Lakulisa is attested by several inscriptions, especially coming from Karnataka region. Many Kalamukha epigraphs refer to Lakulagama. The association of the Kalamukhas with the Pasupatas is well documented. "Many Kalamukha teachers are identified with Lakulisavara. 'Lakulisa siddhanta' is one of the Chief sub-sects studied at the Kodiya matha and most of Srikanta's successors are either identified with Lakula or said to follow Lakula siddhanta." "Somesvara has given a new life to the Lakula siddhanta by the development of his wisdom." 'Several interesting similarities exist between Somanatha Pasupatas and the Belgave Kalamukhas in addition to their association with Lakulisvara'.
The Agamas, cited above distinquish clearly the two systems Soma and Lakula. Though they are two distinct schools, the Soma Siddhanta, greatly borrowed from the Lakulisa school is attested by the epigraphical evidence. The sculpture of Thiruvorriyur, worshipped as Gaulisa, is an image of Dakshinamurti, influenced by the iconographic form of Lakulisa. The following points of interest may also be mentioned. The sculpture is shown wearing sphatika kundalas on both the ear lobes and wears two prominent neck ornaments. The two necklaces - one called Kantika and another called Rucaka are ascribed to Kapalikas by Ramanuja. The six mudras are also found in the image. Ramanuja was a contemporary of the Chaturanana Pandita of the Chola period. It becomes therefore necessary to study the Kapalika school.
Another point of interest is that the Thiruvorriyur temple inscriptions refer to Mahavratins. It would therefore be necessary to study the Mahavrata systems as well.
Kapalikas
The Kapala school is closely allied to the Kalamukha school. Some historians consider that these two schools are one and the same. The same confusion seems to have existed even prior to 17th century. The S.S.V. (Sarva Siddhanta Viveka) raises this specific question and gives in a summary. "They adopt suitably the tenets of Kalamukhas, identify themselves with Mahesa, who dances in the Cemetry (Smasana) at the time of samhara. Singing Sama Veda and with a human skull in their hand go abegging and hence are called Kapalins".
According to this school, there are three entities, Pati, Pasu and Pasa. Rudra as Mahesvara who dances in the Mahasmasana (in the cremation ground) at the time Samhara is the Lord of the world (Pati) who is understood as Sadasiva; is omnecient and omnipotent.
The individual souls are innumerable, and are essentially of the nature of knowledge. While the souls are of the nature of knowledge Lord alone is the embodiment of both knowledge and action. (Knowledge and action are the attributes of the Lord only) Karma - maya is the bondage (Pasa). Kala and Karma are identical and as such Kala is maya.
In order to attain release from bondage, the Kapalins, take Saivite initiation (Siva diksha) perform daily rites, aspire for Kapala Jnana, observe extreme asceticsm, remain indifferent to praise and ridicule and eat only the food obtained by alms. At the time of ultimate release, he becomes equal to Siva (Siva-sama) Another text 'Siddhanta dipika", gives to the Kapalikas almost the same observances and faiths and states that they are very close to Mahavratins in their doctrines.
Mahavratins
The system of the Mahavratins is also summarised in the text, Sarva siddhanta viveka. The Mahavratins, follow by and large the Agamic tenets of the Kapalas. They wear five significant symbols called 'Panca mudras' consisting of 1)Kundika, 2)Kundala, 3)Snake (Uraga)4)a chest jewel, (Sikhamani) and an 5) Upavita made of human hairs (Kesa yagnopavita). They recognize three entitles Pati, Pasu and Pasa. The Lord is Sadasiva, who is omniscient, omnipotent, beginingless, the primordeal cause of all causes and the pure Rudra. The individual souls are innumerable, whose nature is pure knowledge only. They are not capable of independent action. The power of action (Kriya sakti) rests with only the Lord. The bondage (Pasa) according to the Mahavratins is Karma Maya and not Anava mala (individual ego). They also believe in the descend of divine grace (the Sakti nipata). The Mahavratins, gets initiated into Siva diksha, as per agamas, and following the pathos of Jnana and Carya, attain mukti. The Mahavratins emphasize wearing Sivalinga either on head, neck, heart, or above the navel and believe that mukti could be achieved by the constant carriage of Linga. They also believe that one should pay equal devotion to Lord Siva, one's guru, and Jangamas (obviously standing for Saivites carrying Linga). In fact special emphasis is laid on devotion towards human beings. The Mahavratins also believe that Release could be attained in a single birth.
The above account of the Mahavratins, given in the Sarva Siddhanta Viveka., summaries the philosophy, tenets, the observances and beliefs, that distinquish them from other schools. In the matter of carrying a Linga on the body, the Mahavratins are like the Vira Saivas. Thiruvorriyur is held an important centre by the Mahavratins. From various texts it is seen that the system of the Mahavratins was called Lakula. They also lay great emphasis on Vidya.