Dr.R.Nagaswamy
#008080
Eslam Bronzes and Copper-plates
I. Bronze Idols Buried for Safety
A phenomenon that deserves attention is the several finds of bronzes that turn up from under the earth now and then. In recent years such finds are frequently reported and over 200 bronzes have been found wiwthin the last ten years in Tamilnadu. Unfortunately these have not been unearthed by any archaeologist, but by the villagers who in their exictement collect the bronzes hurriedly. So very little scientific information as to the nature of the burials is available. However a study by the present writer reveals that, in most cases, the images were deliberately buried for safety during invasion, fearing that they might be desecrated or carried away. Often the images were laid out inside a specially dug out pit, occasionally lined with brick or stone, and filled with sand. The bronzes were carefully laid face down, securely in the sand spread.
They are generally found buried in one pit but sometimes in more than one. The famous Tiruvenkadu bronzes were found in three groups in the temple premises. It is said that they were found in front of the Virabhadra shrine within the temple complex while digging a pit for foundation. Bronzes were found laid face down, in a specially prepared pit lined with stone slabs. The great Rsabhavahana, Kalyanasundra, Kshetrapala, Bhiksatana, Kannappar and other images were found carefully concealed. The second and the third batch of treausre troves which included the famous Ardhanarisvara, Candikesvara, Kannappar and other images were also found within the temple prakara of the Svetaranyesvara temple. About ten years back about twenty bronzes were found in Sri Svarnamukhisvara temple near Vellore in North Arcot district. These bronzes were also found buried carefully face down in a specially prepared pit lined with brick walls on the sides. A stone slab was said to have been found at the bottom most portion.
Most of the treasure trove bronzes found without much damage show the care with which they were concealed with the main intention of recovering them at a later date and restoring them for the purpose of worship. The Buddhist bronzes from Nagappattinam were similarly found buried deliberately for safety. The following account of the Buddhist finds at Nagappattinam, in T. N. Ramachandran's book on "Nagappattinam Buddhist Bronzes", may be read with interest.
"The first and foremost and at the same time the earliest discovery in Nagappattinam is an inscription on the pedestal of a bronze image found in March 1856, along with four other images in a brick chamber carefully concealed more than three feet below the roots of an old Mohwas tree which was near an ancient tower called Puduveli goupuram or Cina Pagoda in Nagappattinam. This tree was cut down then by the local French Jesuits for their requirements of works of construction. The diameter of the cut tree above the roots being more than a metre it was reckoned that according to the usual growth of the tree an age of 700 or 800 years was to be assigned to the tree and possibly a similar if not an earlier age to the brick chamber below its roots and proportionately a still earlier age to the five Buddhist images entombed therein. The careful manner in which they were concealed and protected in a brick chamber has led their first chroniclers Foucaux and Sir Walter Elliot to conclude that in view of some impending danger they were concealed momentarily for protection but were clearly meant for being restored for religious worship".(1. T. N. Ramachandran, Nagappattinam, and other Buddhist bronzes, Madras, 1954-p.19.) In Polonaruva complex in Ceylon besides the big bronze idol, a number of small idols were found carefully placed inside a pot and buried.
From a careful study of the collection in group, two main periods of invasion seem to have caused these waves of fear and consequent burial. (1) The Muslim invasion in the 14th century (2) The Portuguese invasion. It is recorded that the Portuguese destroyed several temples and caused attacked and desecration at a number of places, with the result the Vijayanagar ruler Ramaraya attacked San Thome and Goa simultaneously toprevent such destructions.
These bronzes found as treasure trove were in most cases acquired for the Museum while some were returned to the temples. A report of the find from Polonaruva is interesting in this regard. While burying images, a special puja seems to have been performed to the images. Charcoal used for incense has been found in the pit with the bronzes. Obviously the people buried them reluctantly but with all veneration, with the fervent hope that they could be rescued when conditions improved. Subsequently that generation lost track of them. Now they appear here and there accidently.
In at least four instances, metal images were found buried with copper plate charters, the noted instance being the famous Tiruvalangadu Nataraja found with a copper plate record of Rajendra Cola I. The recently found Eslam bronzes were also dug out with the copper plate charter of Rajendra Cola. Two other instances are the Tandantottam copper plates found with a marvelous group of bronzes which included a Nataraja and the other is the Tiruttani Velanceri finds-with two copper plates one of Pallava Aparajita, and the othr of Parantaka Cola. The grouping of copper plates belonging to the temple do help us in dating the bronzes found along with them.
A. Scriptures On Burying Bronzes For Safety
From a careful study of treasure trove bronzes unearthed, it is clear that such a custom had the scriptural authority. Agamas do prescribe burying bronzes as a means of protection. The following passage from the Marici Samhita, a Vaikhanasa vaisnavite text would be read with interest. The Vimanarcanakalpa, (Marici text) published in Madras, 1926, Chapter 70, pp. 435-439, gives in detail the process of concealing metal images in times of emergency and restoring them to worship. The chapter is titled Bhaya-raksartham Niskrtih.
When there is fear from robbers, enemies, invasion by the opponent kings, or disturbance in the village, in order to protect the kautuka, snapana, utsava and balibera (images used in bali offerings, festivals, bathing ceremonies, etc.) the metal images, should be hiddden.
In a secret and clean place, a pit should be dug. In it sand should be spread. Over that, the kusa grass should be spread. The Goddess of earth should be invoked; over this sanctified water should be sprinkled, reciting the mantra, "apo hi stha" the acarya, the worshipping priest, the yajamana along with the devotees should enter the shrine, offer salutation to the God, and obtain permission from the God, stating that "Lord, so long as there is fear, till such time be you pleased to remain living in this earth". Then the divine power from the metal image should be transferred to the main deity. If there is no main image it should be invoked in the heart (of the priest) uttering the mantra "pratad visnus tapate"; the image should be carefully placed in the pit in order, reciting the mantra "Yad vaisnava"; the head (of the image) should be laid facing east. The pit should be closed either with sand or earth. The mouth of the pit should be closed tightly. Then one should enter the shrine again, adore the main image; a kurca made of kusa grass should be made, the divine power should be transferred again from the main image to the kurca and the same should be worshipped. If more than one month passes, the kurca should be discarded, a new one made in its places and worshipped.
If the conditions improve the metal image should be retrieved, cleaned with tamarind and punyaha rite should be performed. A series of rites are then prescribed for restoring the image to worship. Similarly different rites are prescribed for images which lay concealed for six months or over one year.
Though the text is a vaisnava scripture, such prescriptions are common to all sects, except variation in the mantras to be recited suited to the deity. It may be seen that while burying the bronzes, special homa-s are performed. In the case of Pollonaruva finds, it is recorded that charcoals were found on top of the place where bronzes were found indicating thereby such textual prescriptions were devoutly carried out. While the bronze images were buried for safety, no stone image was found concealed in similar manner.
In this connection it is interesting to note, that the agama-s prescribe different methods of discarding broken images (Marici Samhita, Chapter 73, pp. 452-454). It is called "Jirna-bera-parityaga-vidhi". When a stone image is damaged or broken, it should be covered with new cloth and tied with ropes made of darbha grass, and taken to a river flowing into an ocean or a lake or tank with perennial water, and after performing certain rites like "angahoma" etc., and after removing the cloth one should deposit it in deep water. If it is a wooden image, it should be consigned to fire and the ashes should be immersed in the water.
If the image is made of metal the process is different. The text classifies the limbs of the images as major limbs and minor limbs. If the breakage is n ithe minor limbs it can be repaired. When it is not possible to repair, or if the damage is found in the major limbs like head, neck, chest etc., then, the broken metal image should be buried in earth and over that portion angahoma and mahasanti should be performed. On the next day the image should be taken out from the pit, purified with pancagavya, and put into fire. If it is silver it should be melted twice; if gold once. Using the same metal, another image like the earlir one should be made.
This agamic text accounts for a considerably number of damaged stone images being found in rivers or tanks. No metal image with damages to the major limbs have been found as treasure trove buried under the earth. Such images were probably melted down and reused.
B. Recent Finds In Tamilnadu
Within a short span of two months, three treasure trove finds of bronze idols were located in three different districts of South Arcot, Tanjore and Salem. The Esalam finds, the subject matter of this paper will be dealt with in detail. The second find from Tanjore district, comes from Konulanpallam, a hamlet of Tittacceri, in Tiruvidaimarudur taluk. The find included Ganesa, two images of Jnanasambandar in dancing pose, one Somaskanda, one Tani Amman, one Alingana Candrasekhara, Nataraja, Sivakami, Candikesvara and three Devi idols. Among the three Devi images one obviously is Bhogasakti, one Palliyarai Nacciyar and the other probably Adipuram Ammam. Besides twelve idols, a diparadhana utensil with five wicks, a tripod, and a vessel were found intact; some broken metal plates and probably prabha parts were also unearthened. On cleaning, the handle of the diparadhana utensil was found to have an inscription in 12th century Tamil characters, readng 'Edirili Colan'. All these idols and utensils were found while digging a pit in the house under construction of a muslim gentleman. Unfortunately no accurate description of how the idols were found is available, except that all the idols and puja utensils were found together in the pit, as if deliberately buried for safety. The entire street where the find was reported, is now occupied by Muslims, but about 80 to 90 years back it is said that this region was a vacant site full of bushes and that the Muslims started buying the sites. Obviously the Muslim colonisation of this place started from around the beginning of this century.
Our search in the region for antiquity yielded valuable clues. A temple of Ayyanar, about one hundred yards from the find spot, houses two stone sculptures, one of a linga and another of Nandi, both assignable to the Chola age of 12th century CE. Though the structure of the Ayyanar temple is modern, the presence of the two Chola sculptures indicates that a Siva temple of the Chola age existed there and that the bronzes belong to that temple. The presence of all essential idols of Ganesa, Somaskanda, Tani Amman, Nataraja Sivakami, Candesvara etc. and puja utensils show that they formed a group of idols of the temple. Stylistsically all the bronze idols and utensils belong to the 12th century CE.
A point of great interest, is the inscription on the diparadhana stand, reading 'EDIRILIChOLA'. This name is found as a title of two Chola rulers--Kulottunga Cola II and his successor, Rajaraja Cola II (1146-1172) both rulers of the 12th century A.D.(2. K. A. N. Sastri, The Colas, Madras 1975--p. 349.) Thus it seems that all the bronzes, forming a group, were royal consecrations. On a comparison with the bronzes found in the Darasuram temple, a foundation of Rajaraja II and also on paleographical grounds, the present group of Tittacceri seems to have been consecrated by Kulottunga II (1133-1150).
The third find comes from Manappalli village, Namakkal taluk, Salem district. The village is situated on the northern bank of the river Kaveri. There are two temples side by side, a Siva temple and a Visnu temple. The Siva temple called Bhimesvara is the most ancient one, as it could be dated on paleographical ground to the 9th century CE. The Visnu temple is a 16th century structure. An inscription found in front of the Visnu temple, in 16th century characters, refers to the establishment of the village as Ramasamudram by Ramaraja Aiyan. The village was called Manappalli alias Annadana- dandanayaka-puram in Valavandi-nadu. It is stated to be an agraharam. A brahmin street exists, even to this day, immediately preceding the Visnu temple and is probably the one referred to in the inscription (ARE 230/1968-69).
A number of inscriptions, mostly in fragmentary condition are found in the Bhimesvara temple which has undergone renovation. The earliest inscription is that of Raja Raja Chola I. From the records it is seen that the village was called Manappalli, alias Singalantaka - caturvedi - mangalam, a brahmadesa in the territorial division Idaiyarruchulal, situated in Kilanga-nadu,in Viracolamandalam. (ARE 231/1968-69). The village was administered by a Perumkuri mahasabha (ARE 232/1968-69). Singalantaka was a title of Rajaraja Cola I. Obviusly the village received some royal benefactions in the reign of Rajaraja, and had got its name Singalantaka caturvedimangalam from the king. In the 14th year of Rajaraja Cola II, 1160 A.D. a merchant of Edirili-cholapuram, named Sembiyam Aranguran gifted 2500 kasu, purchased some lands and endowed them for food offerings to the Lord, his consort (Tambirattiyar), Vinayaka Pillaiyar, Kunram erinda Pillaiyar (Subrahmanya) Daksinamurti and Vatuka Pillaiyar (Bhairava), (ARE Nos. 230-231/1968-69). In the records of the Chola age, the Lord Siva of the temple is called Bhimesvara, a name that has survived to this day.(3. I am thankful to Dr. K. V. Ramesh, Director of Epigraphy for having kindly furnished the transcript of the inscriptions of this village.) During my visit to the village in September 1987 I found a few more fragments of Rajaraja and one of Tribhuvanacakravarti Virarajendra Cola.
In the temple are seen a 9th century stone sculpture of Subrahmanya, a panel of Saptamata-s also of the same age, and standing images of Ganesa, Devi and Bhairava, all assignable to the 12th century CED. These were obviously the deities under worship in the 12th century when provisions were made for food offerings in the record of Rajaraja II.
The bronze idols were found within the vicinity of these two temples. Five mtal images and a metal kuttuvilakku (lamp on stand) were found together in a pit, all placed safely upside down in sand. It is learnt that a huge tree was standing till a few years back near the site from where the bronze idols were found. The tree was cut down about two years ago. The site was being cleared when the workers found the images. After searching thoroughly the surrounding areas and ascertaining that nothing more was left, the idols were removed to the Tahsildar's office of Namakkal, for further action. There is absolutely no doubt that all the images now found belonged to the Bhimesvara temple and were under worship. Among the idols, are included, a standing Ganesa with a prabha, two Parvati images standing, one Natesa and one Tripurantaka, the last two being of great historic interest.
It has been shown that Bhunesvara temple at Manappalli was under active worship upto 12-13th century CE. Among the bronzes, the short folk type Parvati is dated by us to c. 15th century. Obviously the bronzes as a group were buried sometime after that century. We have seen, that in the 16th century, the village was renamed Ramarasa samudram and an agaram established when the Visnu temple was built and a Brahmin street established. Probably towards the end of the 15th century as a result of an external threat, the bronzes were buried for safety and the inhabitants migrated somewhere else. After some years, the agaram has been established and a resettlement took place. It is possible that the bronzes were buried for safety, before the temple adjoining the Siva temeple was built.
So far as the Tittacceri finds are concerned, all the images belong to one age namely the 12th century A.D. It is possible that they were buried when the Muslim invasion took place in the 14th century A.D. Though we have no direct evidence to support the above suggestions the probabilities are very much there.
II. Esalam Bronzes And Copper-plates
A. History Of The Find
On the 11th of August 1987, the inhabitants of Eslam a village near Villupuram, in South Arcot district, Tamilnadu, stuck upon a group of bronzes, temple utensils and a copper plate charter, within the temple premises of Tiru Ramanathesvara temple of the village, while carrying out renovation work to the temple. The present paper, analyses the significance of the find with a special emphasis on the copper plate.
When Esalam villagers in the course of their renovation, were trying to clear a granite stone slab, in the North Eastern corner of the prakara, they found a metal rod like object protruding. When they pulled it out, they found it to be a tripod made of bronze. Growing curious, they probed further and found two more tripods. It was also noticed that the area contained river sand totally different from the surrounding earth. Then the villagers found three bells, placed side by side and in between were placed tiny bronze images. When they were removed, a number of bronze images were found, securely placed in the river sand upside down, arranged radially. The smaller images were at a higher level and the bigger ones were found at the lower level. Beneath all these images was found the copper plate charter, which the villagers thought to be a book of copper sheets, but as will be seen later, it turned out to be a copper plate charter issued by the Cola emperor Rajendra I, in 1036 A.D. The villagers probed not only further deep but also in the surrounding area, and abandoned the search only when they were thoroughly satisfied that no more object has been left out.
From the clear narration of the finders, it is evident that a pit has been dug specially and that, making use of river sand, all the bronzes, utensils and the copper plates had been very carefully buried several hundred years ago, obviously for safety. None, among the bronzes or utensils found in the pit dates later than 1300 A.D. It is not unlikely that these were buried during Muslim invasion between 1310 and 1350 A.D.
The villagers reported the find to the Revenue official and kept all the items in the temple arranged for their worship.(4. My attention was drawn to the find of copper plates along with the bronzes, by Smt. Padmavati, Epigraphist of my department when a photo of the find appeared in the dailies on 17th August. Immediately got in touch with the District Collector, Sri Thangavelu and also the Tahsildar, Villupuram and obtained their permission. Thiru Sukavanesvar, I.A.S. Secretary, Commercial Taxes and Religious Endowment who spoke to me before my departure, appreciated the zeal and awareness of the villages, in safeguarding the bronzes and also arranging for their worship.
I proceeded immediately to Villupuram and with the Tahsildar Sri Subramaniam, went to the village. We were soon joined by the Deputy Superintendent of Police Thiru Sridharan. On seeing us, the entire village over 2000 people--both men and women--thronged to the temple. I had the privilege of explaining to them a brief account of the copper plates, the history of the temple etc. The entire village as one man was overwhelmed with joy and in one voice wanted to arrange for their worship. We responded to their requests and with their consent brought the copper plates to Madras for a detailed study.)
B. The Finds Cleaning
Altogether 23 bronze images, three tripods, four bells, one dhupakkal, two utensils and a pair of metal paduka-s were found. While most of them were found in good condition, a few bronzes were found broken, mainly a number of prabhas. All the items were encrusted with sand particles. I depurted my Laboratory staff, to have the finds cleaned. After cleaning three objects, a bell, a tripod, and a small vessel were found to carry inscriptions. I record my special appreciation of their work in this regard.
C. The Bronzes Description
While some of the bronzes(* Photographs: French Institute of Indology and Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient, Pondicherry.) are big, there are a number which are very small-hardly 9.5 cm. (Ph.15) Among the small bronzes-Visnu and Sridevi and an image of Bhairava (Ph. 4), are remarkable tiny pieces of the 11th century. I think that this is probably the first time that such remarkable pieces of amll size of the mature Cola age have been found in datable context (Ph. 2-3-4).
Among the big bronzes, mention must be made of a Candesvara (Ph. 5), an image identified by us as (portrait of) a saint, two images of Durga, and two images of Pasupatamurti. The Candikesvara holds the parasu in his right hand, while the left is in varada pose which is somewhat unusual. The inconography of another figure which we identify as a saint is rather puzzling (Ph. 6). It is a two armed standing figure, wearing a kaupina on his loin, as found in saint Appar's figures. His hairs are shown curly, his right arm is held in vyakhyanamudra, as found usually in the images of Manikkavacakar, but the left is having a suci-hasta; the image which bears upavita does not bear palm leaves in hand. The vyakhyana and suci are generally associated with the images of teachers. In view of the peculiar representation of the figure, and the acarya form, it would be highly tempting to identify the image as the portrait of Sarvasivacarya, the Rajaguru of Rajendra Cola, who, as will be shown, was the builder of the temple.
There are two figures of Durga with prabha. On the pedestal of both the images, the head of the buffalo is shown (Ph. 14). Along with these were found two images-small in size-of Bhairava, which are of great workmanship and there could be no doubt that they were made in the time of Rajendra Cola. Further there are two bronzes of Siva-standing-four armed, holding sula and pasa in the upper arms and showing abhaya and varada in the lower arms (Ph.7and 8).
Beside these bronzes, one significant bronze in the find is of utmost importance. It represents Siva, standing and embracing Parvati(Ph. 9). The very first look would show that it is foreign to Tamilnadu. Siva wears a high jatamakuta and wields damaruka in the right arm and sula in left arm. Parvati's coiffure is dressed in a remarkable way. The prabha is a plain flat sheet, in three arches without much embellishment, supported by two rod like props. The pedestal is distinctly different but unfortunately somewhat damaged. On the left is seated a Ganesa in a miniature scale. On to the right there ought to have been a Karttikeya which is missing. In the front is Nandi. It seems to be a Western indian bronze, assignable to the 9th century A.D.
It may be mentioned that the inscription in the great temple of Tanjore refers to the Rajaguru of Rajendra Cola I, who built this temple at Esalam. Refering to this Guru, Rajendra says, the disciples and grand disciples of this Rajaguru Sarvasiva Pandita, hailing from Madhyadesa, Aryadesa and Gaudadesa who are duly qualified, alone succeed to this priesthood and enjoy the endowment. This clearly shows this Sarvasiva hailed from North? He should have belonged to a great line of Saivacarya-s who came to the Cola country, and with hime brought this image and also the philosophy of his sect. This might have been an image of personal worship.
The second point of interest in the find is the occurrence of a number of tiny bronze images, including the Bhairava image, which were probably worshipped by the Guru in his personal puja. Thirdly the occurrence of Durga, Bhairava and Pasupatamurti images would show, we are dealing with a Pasupata acarya or Kalamukha as his name Pandita would indicate.
We will have a further and detailed discussion on this aspect when we take up a comprehensive study of this region, which we propose to take up shortly. (See also Ph. 12 and 13).
The presence of a Visnu image, and a bell with the cakra handle, included in the hoard, may suggest that the objects of a Visnu temple were also hurriedly included in this group for burial in order to protect them.
Among the three inscribed objects, a tripod (Ph. 10), on its rim bears the inscription--Tiruvirami- udai - 50 in 13th century characters(Thiruviramisvaram udaiyar). Obviously it belonged to this temple and weighed 50 pala-s. The other is a vessel which has the word "umai 8" embossed in Tamil characters of the 13th century (Ph. 17). The Vaisnavite bell with the cakra on top of the handle, bears an inscription on the body carelessly written as Konman Danman, i.e. gift of a person named Konman.
List of bronzes found at Esalam with their heights
1. Vinayaka (big) 56.5 cm.
2. Devi 68.5 cm.
3. Candikesvara 64.0 cm.
4. Jnana Sambandar 52.5 cm.
5. Sarvasiva Pandita 64.0 cm.
6. Pasupatamurti 42.0 cm.
7. Pasupatamurti 36.0 cm.
8. Candrasekhara 36.5 cm.
9. Candrasekhara 29.5 cm.
10. Candrasekhara 25.5 cm.
11. Candrasekhara--Devi 18.5 cm
12. Durga (standing on buffalo's head) 27.5 cm
13. Durga (buffalo's head is in the lower portion of pedestal) 27.5 cm.
14. Bhairava 19.0 cm.
15. Surya 16.0 cm.
16. Visnu (small) 12.7 cm.
17. Sri Devi 9.5 cm.
18. Royal person (Alvar) 9.5 cm.
19. Nartana Vinayakar (dancing Vinayaka) 8.5 cm
20. Bhairava (small) 12.0 cm
21. Kalyanasundramurti (Siva and Parvati) 1.0 cm
22. Deer with long horn 15.5 cm.
23. Astradeva 48.5 cm.
24. Tripod (stand) with inscription 24.0 cm.
25. Tripod (decorated) (1) 20.0 cm.(2) 16.5 cm.
26. Utensils kuza type decorated (1) 19.0 cm. Utensils with inscription(2) 9.5 cm.
III. The Eslam Copper Plate of Rajendra
The Eslam copper plate grant of Rajendra Cola is the third charter of the ruler to have been found so far. The Tiruvalangadu plates(5. South Indian Inscriptions Vol. III Part III n� 205, p. 383-439, Madras, 1920.) issued in his sixth year, and the Karandai copper plates issued in his 8th year are the two charters of this ruler found earlier. The Karandai plates(6. K. G. Krishnan, Karandai Tamil Sangam plates of Rajendra Chola I, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, N� 79, New Delhi, 1984.) is by far the biggest royal charter to have been found inscribed on copper sheets-anywhere in India. It records the creation of a brahmadeya and gift of lands to 1080 Brahminds. Both the Tiruvalangadu and Esalam grants, relate to the gift of devatana taxes to temples and hence would fall under the same class of grants. Interestingly both were found within the temples and along with bronze images. Obviously both were buried in troubed times to safeguard the bronzes and the charters. The larger Leiden grant(7.Epigraphia Indica XXII, p. 213.) was made by Rajaraja Cola but issued by Rajendra; with that, the total number would be four.
The Eslam grant is interessting as it refers to the construction of the temple by Rajendra's Rajaguru and was found in the same temeple premises. The village was a suburb of Rajaraja-caturvedi-mangalam (Ennayiram) where Rajendra established one of the biggest vedic colleges. Nearby is Brahmadesam where there are Chola temples. The importance of the place,and what prompted the Rajaguru to select this place,and other problems deserve special study which we propose to take up later.
The charter consists of fifteen copper sheets engraved on both sides, fastened to a ring, which is sealed at the mouth with the royal insignia of emperor Rajendra Cola (Ph.16 and 17). The whole charer is intacat without any damage, except the last sheet which is slightly broken at the bottom in a corner. A very insignificant breakage is also noticed in the last but one sheet. Since the last sheet has been bearing the weight during its burial and handling, it shows faint tearing near the ring hole and a hair line crack below. Otherwise the charter is in a very good state of preservation.
Measurements
Plates: length : 34.0 cm.
breadth : 16.5 cm.
thickness : 4.0 cm.
Ring: diameter : 34.0 cm.
thickness : 2.0 cm.
Seal: diameter : 13.5 cm.
The plates are numbered serially (Ph.18 to 47). The charter is in two parts, the first part in Sanskrit and the second part in Tamil. The Sanskrit part covering three plates and a part of the front page of the fourth plate is written in grantha characters, while the Tamil part is in Tamil letters of the Cola age.
A. The Engraver
The care with which the charter is engraved shows that it is the work of a royal scribe. The Sanskrit part of the grant gives the name of the engraver as Ulakalanta-chola Acaryan. The inscription of the seal is also in grantha characters and is preserved in excellent condition. The engraving on the plates is uniformly good except at a few places.
The Karandai plates of Rajendra was engraved by different persons whose names are given as Tribhuvanamadevi Peracarya and Rajendrasimha Peracarya. The Tiruvalangadu plates were engraved by four acarya-s,three of whom were also the engravers of Larger Leiden grant of Rajendra.Two amongst them were the engravers of Karandai plate. The engraver of the Esalam plate is different whose name was Ulagalanta Acari.
The name Vasudeva occurs at the end of the Sanskrit part of the Esalam plate. A certain Vasudevan, son of Krishnan, is known among the family of engravers (K.G.K.P. 54) but he had the title Rajaraja peracaryan who was one of the engravers of Leiden plates. It is difficult to say whether the engraver of Esalam plates is identical with or related to Vasudevan of Leiden grant. Sri Krishnan holds that the word kastakari ascribed to the engravers in the Karandai plates indicates that they were carpenters by profession. "Kashtakari" is a Sanskrit coinage of the word "taksaka" tacca) which actually means silpin-s and no carpenters. Several inscriptions use this term "kashtakari",in the sense of sthapathi-s, silpin-s, architects. Krishnan's view needs to be revised. Silpin-s of great accomplishment were in the employ of the kings to engrave their royal charters.
B. The Poet-composer
The Sanskrit portion of the Esalam grant was composed by poet Narayana Kavi, son of Sankara, a resident of Parsvagrama. It is the same poet who composed the Tiruvalangadu and Karandai plates of Rajendra. K. G. Krishnan suggests that the same Narayana was also the composer of Larger Leiden Grants (P. 53) which is not unlikely. It is clear that almost from the 5th year of Rajendra to his 25th year, this poet has been occupying an important position in the court of Rajendra Cola. One of the verses found in the Karandai plates is verbatim used in the Esalam plates. Krishnan's identification of the village Parsvagrama with the village Kottaiyur a nearby (Parsvagrama) of the lands gifted in Karandai plates, needs revision in the light of this grant.
C. Ajnapti
The anjapti of this Esalam grant was Narakkan Marayan Jananathan alias Rajendra Cola Brahmamarayan. In the Sanskrit portion he is called Jananatha, son of Raman. The Karandai plates mention the very same Jananatha as mantrin, minister, to king Rajendra, and was the vijnapti of that grant. Obviously he occupied this high post under Rajendra from his 8th year to his 25th year. He was one of the sons of Krishnan Raman, who was called Rajendra Cola Brahmamarayan. Krsnan Raman from the same village- -Keralantaka caturvedi-mangalam, in Vennadu, in Uyyakondar valanadu, was the commander in chief of Rajaraja. He erected the enclosure to the great temple at Tanjore. He had the title Mummudicola Brahmamarayan. It is obvious that he served under Rajendra as well. Probably he was conferred another title-Rajendra Chola Brahmadirayan, in the reign of Rajendra. He served as olainayakan in the Karandai grant.
Marayan Jananathan, the ajnapti of this grant, was one of his sons. This Jananatha also served as "Karmam arayum" in the Karandai grant. A certain Narakkan Raman Arulmoli of the same village served as Danda-nayaka (commander) under Rajaraja I. He was probably another son of Raman, as his name indicates. Both father (Raman) and son (Arulmoli) served as commanders under Rajaraja I.
It is also clear from these records, that the commanders under the Chola emperors, also held the posts of mantrin-s (ministers) and olainayakam and karmadhikari (executives), simultaneously.
D. Rajaguru
Isanasiva Pandita, served as Rajaguru of Rajendra Chola, during his sixth regnal year. He gifted money for burning camphor to the main deity in the Great temple of Tanjore during daily worship and also during the great annual festivals. The gifts of the royal guru is recorded in the 6th year of Rajendra Cola I. This guru Isanasiva Pandita was the Rajaguru for Rajaraja Chola I, earlier. He gifted the copper stupi kalasa-s (sacred stupi), the finials, to be placed on the parivara shrines during the 29th year of the king. The inscription recording these gifts (no. 90 of S.I.I. II.) specifically mentions, that Isanasiva Pandita was the Gurukkal of Rajaraja, "Udaiyar Rajarajadevar Gurukkal Isanasiva Panditar".
In the same great temple of Tanjore, a 19th year record of Rajendra Cola refers to Sarvasiva Pandita as the Rajaguru of Rajendra Chola. The king himself mentions specifically that Sarvasiva Pandita was his guru as "Nam Udaiyar Sarvasiva Pandita". This preceptor was given the Acaryabhogam in the temple of Rajarajesvaram at Tanjore. It was stipulated that only his disciples and grand disciples, hailing from Aryadesa, Madhyadesa and Gaudadesa and who were duly qualified were entitled to receive the preceptor's share of 2000 kalam-s of paddy, annually. This gift of endowment was to be protected by the Saiva acarya-s of this line. Hultzsch editing this inscription held (vide his foot note on page 109) that Isanasiva Pandita and Sarvasiva Pandita were perhaps identical. But they should be considered two different guru-s, Sarvasiva succeeding Isanasiva to become the guru of Rajendra Cola sometimes after his sixth year (1018 A.D.). The earlier guru acted as Rajaguru under Rajaraja till Rajaraja's death and continued to be the guru of Rajendra also. Propably after Isanasiva's death, Sarvasiva became his guru.
The Tanjore inscription referring to the gift of copper finials to the subsidiary shrines of the Tanjore temple by Isanasiva in the 29th year Rajaraja Cola, also mentions a certain Pavana Pidaran as the Saivacarya of the Tanjore temple. He made the gift of one finial, in the 3rd year of Rajendra (1015 A.D.). The editors of S.I.I. II 2nd part, suggested that Pavana Pidara was succeeded by Sarvasiva Pandita in the office of the Saivacarya of the temple. But the inscription seems to indicate that the two were different. Pavana Pidars is mentioned as Saivaacarya of the temple, "Rajarajesvaram Udaiyar Saivacaryan Pavana Pidaran". Whereas the inscription referring to Sarvasiva Pandita mentions his as the 'lord' of the king Nam "Udaiyar Sarvasiva Pandita" meaning that the king was his servant. Pavana Pidara should have been a worshipping priest in the great temple and a disciple of Isanasiva.
It is this Sarvasiva Pandita, the royal preceptor of Rajendra, who built the Esalam temple. As the gift of Esalam temple was to take effect from the 15th year of the king, 1027 A.D., it may be surmised the temple was completed in that year. Sarvasiva Pandita ought to have become the Rajaguru before the year 1025 A.D.
Sri K. G. Krishnan in his 'Karandai Tamil Sangam Plates of Rajendra'(p. 30) holds the Anbil plates of Sundara Cola as the earliest Cola plates. This is wrong for the so called 'Udayendiram plates of Prthvipati' is a misnomer, as has been shown by me (Tirurttani and Velanjeri copper plates - p. 27). In both the Sanskrit and Tamil portion, the donor of the Udayendiram plates was king Parantaka Chola, who issued the grant in his 15th regnal year, Ganga Prthvipati appppearing as Vijnapti.
Among the Cola copper plates, the Tiruvalangadu copper plates of Rajendra Cola, deserve special attention as that was also issued for assigning the dues from a village to the temple of Tiruvalangadu Udaiyar at Palaiyanur. The other charters were issued for different purposes.
This copper plate uses terms vyavastai and pariharam in their specific legal meaning. The permissions granted and prohibitions imposed are called "vyavastai", while exemptions to pay taxes into royal treasury, is mentioned as "parihara". The Karandai plates also make this specific distinction, but earlier plates like the Velanjeri plates list both--permission(and prohibition) and exemptions under "parihara".
Regarding Rajaraja-catur-vedimangalam, Sri S. R. Balasubramaniam, holds "that the area formed by the triangle joining Villupuram, Tindivanam and Gingee would apppear to have constituted roughly the Taniyur of Rajaraja-caturvedi-manganal" (Middle Chola Temples p. 150). But from the present record it is seen that Rajaraja-cutervedi-mangalam was much smaller, and to its South was the Jananatha-caturvedi-mangalam. Sri S.R. Balasubramaniam, citing ARE Reports, held that this temple of Ramesvara at Esalam was built by Somasiva Pandita, the guru of Rajendra Cola (M.c. Temples p. 158). But this record clearly shows the name of the builder of this temple and the guru of Rajendra as Sarvasiva Pandita and not Somasiva Pandita. There is an obvious error in the reading of the ARE.
E. The Seal
The royal seal of this copper plate charter is preserved remarkably well (Ph. 17). It shows the seated tiger and two fish in the centre placed on a bow, representing the emblems of the Chola-s, the Pandya-s and the Chera-s respectively. Behind the tiger are in a row, lamp on stand, a sword placed vertically on its handle, an arrow (?) a spear and an ankusa. On the other side behind the fish are shown a lamp on stand, a sword, a spear, an arrow and a parasu. Above these emblems, is shown the royal parasol flanked by fly-whisks (cauri). Further up are seen, a svastika, a cakra and an indistinguishable object. The last one is also found on the Karandai seal and also on the Tiruvalangadu seal, where however it is clearly identified as an opened lotus. Beneath the bow are seen a seat on a tripod, a board and an entrance torana.
It would be interesting to notice the significance of these emblems. The cakra which tops the parasol and all other emblems, is the sign of a Cakravartin. This emblem is not found in the Karandai or Tiruvalangadu seals. Obviously Rajendra has completed all his conquests when this seal was issued in his 25th year which included conquests of gangetic plain and overseas territories, and he has felt the power of Cakravartin which he sought to symbolise in his seal. The boar, is the emblem of the Calukya-s -who were conquered again and again by the Chola-s. The Pandya-s represented by fish, the Chera-s by their bow, and the Calukya-s by their boar, were subdued and brought under the rule of the Chola-s as shown by the umbrella under which protection, all were brought.
The cauri, the svastika and the flower are auspicious symbols, which occur in another seal of Rajendra as well. The significance of the tripod seat is uncertain. The emblem of an entrance with festoons is noticed for the first time in this seal; Rajendra during his conquest of the Srivijaya and Kadara countries captured and brought as war trophy--the Vidyadhara torana of Kadara ruler, Sri Mara Vijayottunga-varman. Obviously it is the capture of this torana, mentioned significantly in his records, which is also figured on this seal.
The seal bears on its periphery Rajendra Chola's well known sasana.
Rajad-rajanya-makuta-sreni-ratnesu sasanam
Etad Rajendra Colasya parakesarivarmanah
F. The Sanskrit Part Of The Grant
The Sanskrit part of the charter gives in brief the geneology of Rajendra Chola, the construction of the Ramesvara temple at Eydar (modern Esalam) by the royal guru Sarvasiva and the gift of land by emperor Rajendra Chola. It also mentions the poet who composed the prasasti and the scribe who inscribed the plates.
The plate begins with two benedictory stanzas, the first in prise of Siva in his Kalyanasundara aspect "Let Bhavanipati who has obtained in marriage Bhavani, and who bears appropriate ornaments on his body-the shining eyes on his face as a tilaka, the kalakuta poison on his throat like a moistened Nilotpala flower, and on the head the digit of the moon as the cudamani jewel, give us prosperity". The second verse addressed to goddess Sarasvati is interesting.
It says "Oh! Goddess Sarasvati! You alone should come to my rescue, and bestow grace on me. The good qualities of the rulers of this Solar race are indeed innumerable. How can I describe all their qualities with these limited number of letters which are only fifty in numbers (vowels and consonants put together)".
Then begins the legendary geneaology of the Chola-s, with Surya-(Saptasapti) followed vby Manu, Ikshvaku, Mandhata, Mucukunda and another ruler Valabha. This ruler is said to have established Valabhapuri. It is not known which city is alluded to here; Is it Vallam near Tanjore? Then the first king of the dynasty is mentioned as Cholavarma. He was followed by rulers named Rajakesari and Parakesari. Then is listed Karikala, who is said to have got the embankments to the Kaveri built by the vanquished kings.
After Karikala, the plate gives the name of Vijayalaya, who obtained unequalled royal power (Rajyalaksmi). His son Aditya, was an abode of scholars and made the world follow righteous path. His son was Parantaka (I), who was a veritable bee in the lotus feet of the Lord Tripurantaka Siva (Puradvish) who made the temple of the Lord of Silver mountain (Kailasa), the golden shrine at Vyaghragrahara (Chidambaram). From Parantaka was born Arindama (conqueror of enemies) bearing the name--appropriate to his valour. To him was born Parantaka (II) who was also a bee in the lotus feet of Siva Purantaka. To him was born Arumolivarma, who with his long and beautiful arms bore the marks of sankha and cakra in his palms. He conquered the Ganga-s, Vanga-s, Kalinga-s, Magadha-s, Malava-s, Simhala-s, Andhra-s, Ratta-s (Rastrakuta-s) Odda-s (Orissans), Kataha-s, Kerala-s, Gauda-s and Pandya-s. By the wealth obtained through his conquests he erected at Tanjanagari (Tanjore) a very great temple (atyuttamam) named Rajarajesvaram.
Rajaraja's brother was Karikala Chola, who by his valour, conquered the Pandya ruler in battle, severed his head, and placed it on top of the pole at the entrance of Tanjore.(8. One of the important event in the history of the Chola-s, that has attracted lively debate, is the term "Virapandyan talai konda". In a fierc battle at Cevvur, the Pandya ruler Vira Pandya and Aditya Karikala, fought a bloody battle. Aditya is given the title "Virapandyan Talai KondaI". Commenging on this Prof. K.A.N. Sastri, says "The Thiruvalangadu plates make an express declaration that Aditya II killed Vira Pandya and brought his severed head to the Chola capital. Even here the lateness of the testimony throws suspicion on the event" (P. 144) Continuing his comments Prof. Sastri says--"Aditya's heroism was probably exhibited in the field of Cevvur to the south of Sevali hills, the Southern boundary of Pudukkottai and the battle must have furnished the occasion for his claim that he took the head of Vira Pandya. The Leyden grant does not state, like the Tiruvalangadu plates, that Virapandya was killed by Aditya and it is possible that the composer of the Thiruvalangadu plates struck by the forcible simile, in the Leyden grant, embellished the account of Aditya's Contest, with Vira Pandya and his account of Aditya's rule adds nothing else to what we learn from the earlier grant. The chances are that after the battle of Cevvur in which Vira Pandya sustained a bad defeat the chola forces, lead among others by Parantaka Siriya velar of Kodumbalur, continued the campaign into the Pandya country and forced Vira Pandya to seek refuge in the forests" (p. 154)
Sastri doubted the killing of Vira Pandya and held that the term "Pandyan Talai Konda" should be taken not as killing Pandya, but defeating him in the battle. The present Esalam grant puts an end to this debate by stating that Aditya not only killed Vira Pandya in the battle, but also brought his severed head to Tanjore and had it exhibited spiked onto a pillar in front of the gate. He protected the world as a boy.
Then was born Madhurantaka, who wanted to re-establish on earth auspicious path of scriptures that has slipped owing to the power of Kali. He, Rajendra Chola, shone as the veritable abode of beauty, valour and intellect, the very main spring of compassion, and the home of all knowledge, He is said to have made the world happy. Among his exploits the following are mentioned.
1. He conquered the Chalukya ruler Jayasimha. 2. He brought the pure water of Ganges to his country and surpassed Bhagiratha in this effort. 3. This Rajendra established the Gangaikondacholapuri after his name and built a great temple also named after him, to Lord Mahesvara out of great devotion. He was deeply attached to the lotus feet of that Lord like a bee ever humming over the Parijata flower.
A certain teacher named Sarvasiva Arya equal to Sarva, and a master of all agama-s was the preceptor of this Madhurantaka, the very abode of arts and good qualities. To this Cakravartin Rajendra, saluted by the resplendent crowns of opponent kings, this very Mahesvara served as the guru.
There exists a great mangalam named Rajaraja- caturved-imangalam in Jayamkonda-chola-mandalam. At Eydar, a suburb of the above agrahara, this guru built a Siva temple to Ramesvara. Lord siva, having left his residence of Kailasa and other sacred abodes, took his seat in this temple built by this guru with devotion.
Madhurantaka, the son of Rajaraja Chola, while residing at Kanchi in the beautiful mahasala, gifted wealth to Brahmins. With due respect and devotion to his guru, he gifted a land for the worship of Siva of Ramesvara temple. He ordered his subordinates to demarcate the land. Two villages, Nannadu and Erpakkam in Panaiyur-nadu were united into single village and renamed Vikrama-cholanallur, and gifted tax free to Lord Siva. The order of the king was inscribed in the tax register in his 25th year. The boundaries of the village were marked by the king's officers and the representatives of the territories. This guru himself was the vijnapti. A certain Jananatha, son of Raman was the ajnapti of the grant.
A certain poet Narayana, son of Sankara, a resident of Parsvagrama, composed this sasana. This prasasti was written by Ulakalantacola Acaryan.
I had the privilege of showing the copper plates to the Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Pithadhipati Paramacarya Candrasekharendra Sarasvati Svamigal. The Paramacarya not only went through the entire transcript of the copper plate prepared by me, but also read the original copper plates-especially the Sanskrit part, and pointed out corrections to some of my readings. In his inmitable style the Acarya remarked that while Tamil letters have undergone evolution through the centuries, the Grantha script has remained unchanged from the Chola times. The Paramacarya, even before reading the transcript and the plates, told me about a verse he has learnt from his teacher, which is of great value to the present copper plate charter. The Acarya said that he learnt the following verse from his teacher (whose name was mentioned to me by the Bala Periyaval as Samivadyar who served as a teacher to Paramacarya for sometime).
Patrakalitavedanam sastramarganusarinam
Etad va arikalasya karikalasya sasanam
According to Paramacarya, the above verse is said to have been found in an inscription at Tiruvidaimarudur in Tanjore district, but is yet to be verified. The Tiruvidaimarudur temple which yielded over 100 inscriptions, was renovated towards the beginning of this century, and all these inscriptions have been lost. However the Acarya said that though the verse reads simple, it is difficult to interpret its meaning. The meaning according to the Acarya's teacher was; -- Akalitavedanam patr i.e. the protector of vedic scholars; amarganu-sarinam sastr i.e. the punisher of those who swerve from the righteous path. The rest of the portion means that it is the royal order of Karikala, the death to enemies. Obviously this might have been found on the royal seal of the famous Cola ruler Karikala, preserved to us only in tradition. We are beholden to the Paramacarya, for this very valuable information. When the Paramacarya read the Sanskrit part of this charter, he was happy to note one verse in the charter, which has made use of the same phrase: Arikala to denote Karikala.
The Junior Pontiff, who evinced very great interest in the content of the copper plate charter, informed me of another tradition which needs to be recorded here. In these copper plates (as in other earlier charters) it is stated that when the king's order arrived at the village, the Nattar got up in reverence, placed it on their head, and went in procession to demarcate the boundaries.
The Junior Pontiff -- Sri Sankara Vijayendra Sarasvati told me that even today this tradition is observed. A day prior to the Vyasa Puja, a Srimukham is issued annually by the Kanchi mutt which used to be read at the gopura of the Kamaksi temple in Kanchi, when the leading citizens of Kanchi assembled. The Srimukham contains the prasasti of the Kanchi mutt. Then the Srimukkham is placed on a palanquin, and is taken around the main streets of Kanchi to the accompaniment of music and chants. It is interesting to note that this Srimukham, of the spiritual order of Kanchi mutt, is acknowledged by the Kanchi citizens.
G. The Tamil Portion
The Tamil portion of the record which runs into 349 lines of writing on the plates should be studied in several parts.
King's order
The first part relates to king's order. The Tamil part of the charter, (1. 80) after the word Svasti Sri, begins with the word Konerinmai Kondan, a conventional method of indicating that is the king's own order. The gift was made by the king while he was in the bathing hall of his palace at Kanchipuram, a nagaram in Eyilkottam (86) of Jayankonda- cholamandalam. The gift was made in the tenth day of 24th regnal year of the king, (85) but was to take effect from the 15th regnal year itself (1. 126). This indicates obviously the date of construction of the Ramisvarar temple at Esalam, by the guru of the emperor.
The order of the king was addressed to: (a) The Nattar-s of Panaiyur Nadu in Jayamkonda- cholamandalam (the territory in which the gifted land was situated ) (1. 87)
(b) The villagers of
i. Brahmadeyas
ii. Devatanas
iii. Palliccandams
iv. Kani Murruttus
v. Vettapperus
vi. Old Arac-cala-bhoga and
(c) The Nagarattar
A new village under the name Vikrama-chola-nallur was constituted by uniting two villages, Nan-nadu and Er-pakkam that formed part of Rajaraja- carupedi- mangalam and Jananatha-carupedi-mangalam in Panaiyur-nadu (87-89). Rajaraja-caturvedi-mangalam is mentioned as Taniyur. The Royal Order mentions the total area covered by the newly constituted village, Vikrama-chola-nallur and details individually the area covered by temples, irrigation canals, lakes, grazing grounds, residential areas, cemetery etc. and also wet and dry lands.I list below for conveniencene details of land measurements leaving out minute subdivisions.
(1) The total area occupied by the village was 109 veli and 10 1/2 ma (91). (2) Out of this total area the following public lands have to be deducted
i. Residential area of the village--3 veli & 6 ma (93)
ii. Drinking water tanks, its embankment and feeder canal-1 veli 3/4 ma (94)
iii. Irrigation Canals--3 veli 7 1/2 ma (95)
iv. The rivulets Cirraru and Manimuttaru feeding the lake in Jananatha-caturvedi-mangalam--4 veli 16 ma (95)
v. The temple of Sri Tali Mahadeva of this village, its yeard and flower garden--4 ma (101)
vi. Padariyar temple and its front yard--1 ma (102).
vii. Aiyyanar temple and its open yard (104).
viii. The flower garden of Sri Ramisvara temple in Eydar, a hamlet of Rajaraja-caturvedi-mantalam--13 ma (107).
ix. Artisan's hamlet (Kammanac-ceri)-3 ma (108)
x. Paraicceri--ma (109)
xi. Grazing ground--2 veli 1 ma (110)
xii. Cremation ground--3 ma (111)
xiii. The lake of Jananatha-caturvedimangalam--1 veli 6 ma (112)
xiv. Alkaline land and brakish land--10 1/2 ma (113)
All these lands put together measuring 18 veli 16 ma area are to be excluded from the total area (115).
The rest forming:-
a) Lake and lift irrigated wet lands raising two crops a year, measuring 8 veli
b) Lake irrigated wet lands raising one crop a year 59 veli 5 1/2 ma (118-119) and
c) Dry lands raising grains like varagu, ellu, kollu and tuvarai 23 veli 10 ma (120-125).
A total of 90 veli 18 ma lands paid 3400 kalam-s of paddy as tax from the 15th regnal year.
Annual tax (126-132)
This 3,400 kalam-s of paddy has been fixed as annual land-dues in perpetuity (kanik-kadan, nirr-irai) and should be measured to Lord Mahadeva of the stone temple, Tiruramisvaram, erected by our Lord (guru) Sarvasiva Panditar at Eydar, a hamlet of Rajaraja-carupedi-mangalam, a taniyur in Panaiyur Nadu. The land dues should be used for the nibandha-approved expenses of the temple. The king ordered that the land should be entered in the registers as devatana.
The tittu
That the order of the king was committed to writing by an officer of the king and compared by four officers, forms the second section of the charter (132-143). A certain Mummodi-cholan, the royal scribe (olai eludum) wrote down the order. The names of the four officers are
1. Cavur Paranjoti--alias Rajendra-cholak-kon
2. Kovan-accan alias Gangaikonda-chola Animuri Nadalvan
3. Narakkan Marayan alias Uttama-chola Brahmamarayan
4. Narayanan Eduttapadam alias Uttama-chola Colakkon.
All the above four officers were holding the post of olai nayakan. This order was communicated, and ordered to be written down in the Central Secretariat by Narakkan Marayan alias Jananathan Rajendra chola Brahmadhirajan. He is identical with the Ajnapti Jananatha, a son of Raman mentioned in the Sanksrit portion. As per his orders, the detailed draft was prepared by a further group officers. I list below only the names of the official posts and the number of officers under each (144-185).
1. Udankuttattu [nam] karmam arayum 2 Officers
2. Naduvirukkum 1 Officers
3. Vidaiyil nam karuman arayum 6 Officers
4. Naduvirukkum 1 Officer
These officers drafted the order.
5. Puravuvari tinaikkalattu kankani 2 Officers
6. Puravuvari tinaikkalam 3 Officers
7. Varippottakam 2 Officers
8. Mukavetti 3 Officers
9. Varippottakakkanakku 1 Officers
10. Variyilidu 2 Officers
11. Pattolai 2 Officers
The above officers were present and got the tittu entered in the tax register on the 76th day of the 24th year (186). As we have seen earlier, the king issued the order on the 10th day of he 24th year. It has taken sixty six days for the details to be entered at the central Secretariat.
Further these king's personal staff directed three officers with the insctructions to demarcate the boundaries by conducting an elephant around the newly constituted village, Vikmachola-nallur, consisting of Nan-nadu and Erpakkam, which were separated from Rajaraja-caturvedi-mangalam, a taniyur in Panaiyur-nadu, and Jananatha-caturvedi-mangalam in Vavalur-nadu. The three officers who were so directed were Enban Puran of Uduttur, who was a kankani and Revenue administrator of that territory-Panaiyurnadu. The other two were Puravu-vari tinaik-kalam (192).
(1) Arangan Paniccai of Kaniccaip-pakkam in Anmur-nadu in Tirumunaip-padi, and
(2) Sri Krsna Pattan of Kanderu, in Vanavanmadevi- caturvedi-mangalam in Kumilnadu in Anmurkottam (195).
The villagers of Rajaraja-caturvedi-mangalam and Jananatha-caturvedi-mangalam were directed to accompany the above officers, demarcate the boundaries by conducting an elephant carrying flags, plant stones and milk bushes and draft the 'gift-deed', ara olai. (197).
As per the above order, the following 'gift-deed' was drafted by the two villagers and the above mentioned officers.
The tirumungam (Royal Order)(232-246).
Here, on line 198, begins the usual prasasti of Rajendracola, found in all his inscriptions beginning with the words Tirumannivalara. In the Karandai plates this prasasti stops with "Parasuraman mevarun cantimat-tivu Aran karudiruttiya cemportiru tagu mudiyum mapperum tandar konda parakesari varman" (lines 377-378). The Tamil prasasti of Karandai plates does not refer to the conquest upto Gangetic plains. Nor does it refer to the conquest of Kadara. But the Sanskrit portion of the same charter refers to the conquest of Kadara, Calukya, Jayasimha etc. It may be recalled that the Karandai plates were issued in the 8th year of the king's reign in 1020 A.D. whereas the Esalam plates were issued in the 24th year and inscribed in his 25th year (1.232). The Tamil portion of Esalam plates give the full details of his conquest as found in the fuller prasasti found in a number of Tamil inscriptions of the king. As this part is well known is not discussed in detail here.
The tirumungam (Royal Order)(232-246)
The next part, being the continuation of the prasasti, is called the tirumugam dated in the 55th day of 25th year-written by Tirumandiravolai Namban Pahaiyadakki of Mattur in Vilainadu in Uyyakkondar valanadu (232-246). This was compared by four officers:
1. Savur Paranjoti--alias Rajendracholakkon.
2. Kovanaccan alias Gangaikondachola animurti Nadalvan
3. Narakkan Marayan Arulmoli, alias Uttamachola Brahmamarayan and
4. Narayanan Eduttapadam alias Uttamachola Colakkon
The record then details the boundaries of the two villages marked by circumambulation.
Boundaries (247-286)
The boundaries of both Nannadu and Erpakkam each separately are then detailed. In both the cases, it is seen that the marking begins at the North-eastern corner of the village and passes down South, West and North and is ended at the starting point. It is also seen, that banks of canals, rivulets, mounds, anthills, boundaires of lands and villages are mentioned as prominent identifiable marks. From the description of the boundaries, it may be seen that Rajaraja-caturvedi-mangalam was situated in the North and Jananathacaturvedimangalam in the South, both separated by an irrigation canal, named Raja-culamani-vaykkal. The village Tiruvamattur was situated to the West of Jananatha-caturvedi-mangalam. The full boundaries are not translated in this essay, but it is proposed to give only the salient features.
There was a lake in the North of the Jananatha- cataurvedimangalam. It was called Vadakkil eri.e. the northern lake. This lake was fed by a rivulet called Cirraru, and also a canal, the name of which is not mentioned. In Jananatha-caturvedi-mangalam there were two irrigation canals; one called Nigarili-chola vaykkal, obviously named after Rajaraja Chola, and the other named Rajendra Cola vaykkal after Rajendra. A Jayamkonda-chola-vadi is also mentioned.
The tirumugam was approved and sent to the Nattar. It is interesting to mention that the king's first order regarding the grant was written by Singanai Mummudi-cholan and compared by four officers. The second part-i.e. tirumugam was writrten by a different person, Namban Pahaiyadakki holding the office of Tirumandira olai. But this part was also compared by the same four officers who compared earlier the king's order.
The Territorial Assembly Acts. ARA-OLAI (287-295)
The territorial assembly, on seeing the arrival of the tirumugam, got up, welcomed the same with reverence, paid obeissance to it, and carrying it on their head, identified and marked the boundaries, circumambulated with the elephant carrying flags, planted stones and milk bushes and drafted the gift deed, (ara olai). The two villages- Rajaraja- caturvedi-mangalam, a taniyur in Panaiyur-nadu, and Jananatha-caturvedi-mangalam in Vavalur-nadu, surveyed separately, the two hamlets Nan-nadu and Erpakkam, clubbed them together as one village and gave it a new name Vikrama-cholanallur. It was ordered (by entry in tax register) that the taxes should be paid for meeting"stipulated expenses" in connection with the worship (nibandha) to the Lord Mahadeva, the presiding deity of the Stone temple Tiruramisvaram, constructed by the revered Sarvasiva Pandita at Eydar, a hamlet of Rajaraja- caturvedi- mangalam, a taniyur i.e. independent village, in Panaiyur-nadu.
It is also learnd from this record that the following temples were located in Rajaraja - caturvedi - mangalam.
1. Rajarajavinnagar Uyyakkondadevar temple--Visnu temple.
2. Tirumaliruncolai Visnukkal--Visnu temple.
3. Tiruvaypadi devar--Visnu temple.
4. Karunakara-priyadeva temple.
5. Tiru ambalam udaiya Mahadeva temple--Siva temple.
The lands (probably cultivable lands) belonging to these temples were situated in the region.
Areas included (295-301). The record then proceeds to give the various types of lands that would fall within these four boundaries.
1. Wet land (Nir nilan)
2. Dry land (Puncey)
3. Village (Ur)
4. The residential area (Urirukkai)
5. Temple (Srikoyil)
6. Temple yard (Tirumurram)
7. House (Manai)
8. House-yard (Manaippadappai)
9. Shop (Kadai)
10. Bazaar street (Kadaitteru)
11. Artisan's quarters (Kammanacceri)
12. Drummer's quarters (Paraic-ceri)
13. Cremation ground (Cudu-kadu)
14. Bathing yard (Padu-turai)
15. Central assembly area (Manru)
16. Grazing ground (Kanru meypal)
17. Tank (Kulam)
18. Village granary (Kottagaram)
19. Pit (Kiddangu)
20. Well (Kinaru)
21. Irrigation well (Keni)
22. Ant hill and elevated ground (Purru, Terri)
23. Forest (Kadu)
24. Brackish land (Kalar)
25. Saltish land (Uvar)
26. Rocky surface (Kal)
27. River (Aru)
28. Land on the banks of river fit for cultivation (Aridu padugai)
29. Stream (Odai)
30. Breach (Udaippu)
31. Lake (Eri)
32. Water pool (Eri nir koppu)
33. Fish pool (Min padu pallam)
34. Fallow (Ten payil podumbu)
All lands included within the boundaries, without exception, inclusive of cultivation and supervisory rights (service tenure and yield share) excess and shortage all inclusive were made as devatana to Lord Mahadeva of Tiruramisvaram at Rajaraja- caturvedi- mangalam (301-306).
Vyavastha (307-320)
The following are the permission and restrictions stipulated as Vyavastha.
1.Permission is granted to dig canals to irrigate or bale out the lands with the water in accordance with its course.
2. Permission is granted to utilise irrigation water by its flow or balling out as enjoyed earlier, from branches, streams, sluices, canals and rivers flowing to this village through the bordering villages.
3. Outsiders are prohibited from either cutting branch canals from the irrigation canals of this village, or using picottas or baskets to bale water, or construct dam.
4. Use of drinking waters for other common purposes is forbidden.
5. Other waters could be canalised to irrigated lands.
6. Permission is granted to raise embankments in their lands to allow this village tank to contain as much water as it could hold.
7. Permission is granted to erect residential buildings with storeys using tiles.
8. Permission is granted to dig large irrigation wells.
9. Permission is granted to plant useful trees like coconut, betelnut, palm trees, jack trees, mangoes, and damanaka, iruvaci, campakam, cenkalunir and other groves.
10. Permission is granted to set up oil press.
11. Toddy tappers are forbidden to climb and tap toddy from coconut trees within the boundaries of this village.
Taxes exempted (321-326)
The record then details the exemptions granted which are as follows:
1. Nadatci
2. Uratci
3. Vattinali
4. Pidanali
5. Vannarap-parai
6. Kannalak-kanam.
7. Idaip-pattam
8. Kucak-kanam.
9. Tari-irai
10. Tattar-pattam
11. Tattalip-pattam
12. Ilap-putci
13. Manru-padu
14. Palav-irai
15. Tiy-eri
16. Vir-pidi
17. Valai-manjadi
18. Nall-a
19. Nall-erudu
20. Nadu-kaval
21. Udu-pokku
22. Ilaik-kulam
23. Nirk-kuli
24. Ulku
25. Odak-kuli
All these taxes which are to be enjoyed by the king, will not be levied by the king, but should be paid to this Lord Mahadeva.
Gift deed issued (330-335)
'We the members of the territorial assembly of Ppanaiyur-nadu, issued this "gift deed", after demarcating the boundaries of Nan-nadu and Erpakkam as Vikrama-chola-nallur, from the 15th regnal year of the king, as a deva-tana of Lord Mahadeva of Tiru Ramisvaram, the stone temple in Eydar, a hamlet of Rajaraja- caturvedi-mangalam built by Sarvasiva Pandita'.
Signatories (336-348)
The deed then mentions the signatories to the grant, giving details of the name of the person, his official position etc. The officers who performed certain functions alone are mentioned here for convenience. Along with the members of territorial assembly was present Krshnan Pattan, who got the gift deed executed (ara olai ceyvittan). He is mentioned as "Tirumuga araycci" stationed at Kanchipuram. Arangan Paniccai supervised the circumambulation by elephant for demarcating the boundaries. He is also mentioned as "Puravu-vari-tinaikkalam". The gift deed was got written by Puran of Uduppur (olai ceydu kudutten). He is also called "Tandal", i.e., the tax collecting officer for Rajaraja-caturvedi-mangalam. It may be mentioned that these three officers were earlier ordered to excute the gift deeds. Here we understand their specific functions-each in charge of one function.
We then find the names of four persons who sign as witnesses. All of them belonged to Kunjaramalla- caturvedi-mangalam. The scribe-karanattan, who wrote the 'gift-deed' is mentioned as Nangur Perum-kavidi, the karanattan, of Rajaraja-caturvedi-mangalam, and wrote this under instructions from the territorial assembly of Panaiyur-nadu.
The two caturvedimangalam-s (349-379)
Then we find the assembly of Rajaraja- caturvedi- mangalam and Jananatha-caturvedi-mangalam attesting the record.
The assemblies were represented by one representative for each ceri and there were eleven ceri-s under each caturvedimangalam. The following ceri-s from Rajaraja- caturvedi-mangalam are mentioned.
1. Madurantakac ceri
2. Lokamahadevi ceri
3. Periya vanavan madevic ceri
4. Uttamacholac ceri
5. Rajarajac ceri
6. Colakulasundaric ceri
7. Vanavan madevic ceri
8. Arumolidevac ceri
9. Pancavanmadevic ceri
10. Cerakulaculamanic ceri
11. Sundaracolac ceri
The following ceri-s constituted the Jananatha- caturvedi- mangalam.
1. Uttama cholac ceri
2. Rajasundaric ceri
3. Gangaikondacholac ceri
4. Rajarajac ceri
5. Jananathac ceri
6. Vikrama-cholac ceri
7. Chola-keralac ceri
8. Chola-Pandyac ceri
9. Madurantakac ceri
10. Mudi-kondacolac ceri
11. Rajendra-cholac ceri
It is evident from the above that both the caturvedimangalam had eleven ceri each named after the kings and queens. The names Rajaraja- caturvedi-mangalam and Jananatha- caturvedi- mangalam indicate both were constituted after the name of Rajaraja Cola. A careful study of the names of the ceri indicate that Rajaraja-caturvedi-mangalam was constituted earlier, probably by Rajaraja bearing the names of Rajaraja, his father, mother, queens, predecessor etc. Rajendra's name is not found. Whereas the Jananatha-caturvedi-mangalam, though named after one of the title of Rajaraja, bears mostly the names of Rajendra like Rajendra, Gangaikonda, Vikramacola, Uttamachola etc. Except two names Rajaraja and Jananatha, all the rest belong to Rajendra's reign. Probably it was constituted by Rajendra, who named is after his father.
The charter is then attested by the assembly of Tiruvamattur represented by three members among whom one is mentioned as a vellala (380-424). After them the deed is attested by three merchants of Arumolidevapuram. Arumolidevapuram was situated in this Panaiyur-nadu obviously established by Rajaraja as a commercial centre. Three vellala representatives of Kondanji village, a devatana in Vavalurnadu, in Panaiyurnadu attest after the merchants.
This part of the deed is followed by nearly 20 government officials who were said to have been present and got the "gift deed" entered in the tax-register and made it a paradatti in the 375th day of the 25th year of the king (416). The names of the officers who signed are listed separateloy. We have seen the order was issued by the king on the 10th day of the 24th yerar, and the final orders at the village was completed exactly two years later.
It may be noted that apart from the government officials, the signatories included, the assemblies of brahmadeya, (the two Caturvedimangalam) the ur (by Tiruvamattur), the nagaram (by the vyapari of Arumolidevapuram) and devatana (by Kondanji) who were addressed at the very beginning of the order. While the order gives repeatedly the names, nativity, posts etc. of all the signatories it does not mention any name of the nattar. It is strange and therefore the question arises who were the nattars. Is it possible that the nattar meant collectively the assemblies of brahmadeya, ur, Nagaram, and devatana?
The grant is an excellent example of how the cola administration was thoroughly organised and the records were meticulously drafted, compared at every stage, and got the participation of the territorial representative fully involved in the process. The charter also gives us the detailed process of how the inscriptions were issued at different stages. It is also tempting to suggest that several hundred inscriptions engraved on the temple walls, relating to devatana, iraiyili etc. in fact constitute only the last araiolai part, that was drafted at the village level, beginning with the prasasti part.
Officials
The following are the list of officials who supervised and got the deed executed. The first is the list of officials at the king's court in the capital and the second is the list of officers who got the Aravolai at the village. In both the instances, it was Narakkan Marayan Jananathan alias Rajendrachola Brahmamarayan, who was the highest official who ordered and supervised the execution. He is the officer mentioned in the Sanskrit portion as ajnapti. Both the list give the designation of the posts and the names of the incumbants. In both the lists, the posts are more or less identical, but the officers occupying the posts are different except four who were deputed to the village and whose names are found in both the lists. In both the lists two levels of posts, the high and the low are discernable. All the high officials, listed high up in the lists are seen with royal titles--like Muvendavelan, Brahmadhirayan etc., while others have no such titles.
List I
Officials at the capital
1. Highest official
1. Narakkan Marayan Jananathan alias
2. Rajendracola Brahmamarayan.
2. Karmam arayavar
1. Manakan alias Irumudi Cola Muvenda Velan.
2. Narayanan Porkari--alias Ke ... Muvendavelan
3. Naduvirukkai Solaippiran Pattan.
4. Vidaiyil Nam Karmam Arayvar
1. Kovattan alias Uttamacola Pallavariyan
2. Tillaivitankan alias Rajendracola Muvendavelan.
3. Erintodi alias Parakesari Muvendavelan.
4. Maran Mananilai alias Nityavinoda Muvendavelan.
5. Kali Adittan alias Mudikondacola Muvendavelan.
6. Koyil cittan alias Cola Pandya Muvendavelan.
5. Naduvirukkai Narayana Bhatta Vasantayaji
6. Puravuvari Tinaikkalakankani
1. Ninran Pattan
2. Tiruvali Adittan
7. Puravuvari Tinaikkalam
1. Marudan Sankaran
2. Kumara Kalan
3. Arangan Paniccai
8. Varippottagam
1. Tarukkan Kari
2. Adigal Kadan
9. Mukavetti
1. Sendan
2. Kesavan
3. Tali Tiruveli
10. Varipottaka Kanakku Tali Narayanan
11. Variyiladu
1. Korran
2. Kovan
12. Pattolai
1. Aiyaran
2. Attiyuran
1. Variyili iduvitta
puravu vari Tinaikkalam.
Sankaran.
2. Mukavetti ... Kesavan
3. Vasitta Colamandala
Puravuvari Tinaikkalattu Arangan Narayanan.
Varippottakam:
4. Variyiulidu ... Korran
5. Pattolai - Attiyuran
LIST 2
Officials at the village
1. Highest official Narakkan Marayan Jananathan alias
Rajendracola Brahmamarayan
2. Udankuttattu Adikarigal .. 1. Vasudevan alias Aticayacola muvendavelan
2. Kailayattar alias Kumaraviccadara Muvendavelan
3. Venkatan alias Gandaraditta Muvendavelan.
3. Vidaiyil Adikarigal.. 1. Maran Mananilaiyar alias Nittavinoda Muvendavelan
2. Kollai Puttan alias Uttamacola Pallavarayan.
4. Puravuvari Tinaikkalak Kankani
1. Tiruvenkadam
2. Ganapati (kanavati)
5. Puravuvari Tinaikkalam.
1. Adavallan
2. Paniccai
6. Puruvuvari tinaikkala Varippottakam
Tarukkankari
7. Mukavetti
1. Kon Adittan
2. Cendan
8. Varipottaka Kanakku
Kunran Velan
9. Variyilidu
Marudan
10. Pattolai .. Matturudaiyan
11. Aravolai Variyiliduvitta Puravuvari tinaikkalam. .. Paniccai
12. Vacitta Varippottakam .. Tarukkan kari
13. Variyilitta colamandala
Puravuvari Tinaikkalattu variyilidu .. Mangalam Udaiyan
14. Pattolai eludinan .. Parantakan
It seems that Olai and Olainayakam at the capital were responsible for drafting, writing and supervising all orders issued by the king. The Puravuvari Tinaikkalam is the department of revenue administration. This charter gives another department stationed at larger territorial divisions responsible for checking up all orders of the king coming from the capital, reaching the regions. Its name is given Tirumuga Araycci. One such post was sanctioned at Kanchi. Further details regarding the administrative machinery under the Colas will be discussed by us elsewhere.