Gold and Silver Coins of SriLanka and Tamilnad
in Ancient times: An Assessment
Former Director of Arcaheology,Tamilnadu
(This paper was presented at an International conference on Trade connection between Tamilnad and Srilanka held at Chennai in 2003. As the seminar papers have not been published so far, the same is published here for the benefit of scholars)
Introduction
Different terms are employed in ancient inscriptions and by Scholars to denote gold, silver or copper coins. It becomes difficult to follow what type of coin is referred to and what is its value. For example one notices the term "kaḻańju" for different coins. One even wonders whether the ancient Tamil and Ceylonese people were aware of any consistency and had any machinery to maintain standards in their value that would enable economic and commercial transactions. This paper will focus attention on this problem. Before I take up the terminology and also the Srilankan situation, I would like to present some illustrations from contemporary Tamilnadu, specially from the Pāṇdya country which is close to Srilanka. A number of inscriptions of the king Pāndya Varaguna II, who had the title Māran Cadaiyan, and who ruled in the later half of 9th cent., are found both in the Chola and Pāṇḍya country thus spread over a vast region of four hundred miles across Tamilnadu. And what is more interesting is that in majority of the cases the king himself is the donor.
Consistent Monetary System
One finds a strict and consistent monetary system through out this country suggesting a highly competent financial management. It is also known that there are variations in the weights of coins, so far obtained. The following terms are noted for coins in Varaguna’s records
kaḻańju
pon
kāṇam
cempon
paḻamkācu and
niṟai kuṟaiyā paḻamkācu
These are endowed for burning perpetual lamps in local temples, and in most cases specifically as fixed deposits, yielding fixed rate of interests. The endowment stipulated that the interest alone should be used for expenses, while the fixed deposit should remain untouched. The interest was calculated in terms of specific quantity of ghee to be measured daily to the temple. The inscriptions show the same rate from Kumbakonam in the Chola country to Ambasamudram in the South Pāṇḍya country.
Unit of Endowment
It is seen that the amount deposited was 15 kaḻańju , 30 kācus, or 60 paḻam-kācus for one perpetual lamp.
Village Lamp Cash Measure Ref
Trichy 1 30 kaḻańju 1 uri 10 / SII 14
Lalgudi 1 60 kācu 1 uni 12 B/SII 14
Thiruvellarai 1 60 kaḻańju pon 1 uni 12 / SII 14
Thirukkodikka 1 15 kaḻańju –Sempon 1 uni 20 /SII 14
Thirukkodikka 1 60 kaḻańju pon 1 uni 21/ SII 14
Thiruppattur 1 15 niṟai kuṟaiyā paḻamkācu 1uni 15/ SII 24
Thirugokarnam 1 15 pon 1 uni 25/SII 14
Ambasamudram 1 15 niṟai kuṟaiyā-paḻamkācu 1 uni 17/SII 14
Perungulam 1 50 sheep 1 uni 29/ SII 14
It may be seen that either 15, 30 or 60 are mentioned as standard cash paid throughout the kingdom for endowing one perpetual lamp. The fact that 15, 30, or 60, consistently mentioned for one perpetual lamp indicates that 15 denotes the full kaḻańju, 30 denotes unit of half a kaḻańju and 1/4 the kaḻańju by 60.
In all these cases the cash endowed were minted coins? Some subtle difference are also noticed in the usage. For example The 1/4 kaḻańju - (60 kaḻańju) is also mentioned as Paḻamkācu, ˝ kaḻańju (30 units ) is called kaḻańju pon, while when one kaḻańju is endowed it is called “full standard in weight” niṟai-kuṟaiyā palam kācu (that old coin not short of weight.)
Fineness and weight of coins
The term niṟai-kuṟaiyā - palam kācu shows clearly that the ancients were fully aware that some coins were short of standard weight. They obviously had a system of weighing each coin for its weight, and thus had not only the number of coins counted but also the weight and as will be shown presently also the purity. In all possibility when the number of coins were more in the transactions they weighed 30 or 40 kācus together and took the total weight into consideration unlike the present system, Thus the number, fineness and weight of coins played an important role in ancient coinage.
While the standard fractions as 1,1/2, and 1/4 have been well defined, the difference in weight and fineness in actual manufacturing and handling was conceded and adjusted in average. This was a practical way because they realized variation occurs due to exigencies of manufacture.
Either short of, or in some cases more than the standard weight is noticed in a number of instances in Tanjore inscriptions, though they occur in gold or silver vessels or precious jewels.
This can also be seen in the table given by Sir A. Cunningham for silver coins
Coins actual standard
2 1/2 144 150
1 1/2 " 86 1/4 90
1 " 57.6 60
1/2 " 28.8 30
1/4 " 14.4 15
This would show 15, 30, 60 were maintained as standard units of weight shown by the inscriptions In these instances we notice a uniform system operating through out the kingdom.
Common Currency in different States
There is another interesting point that deserve notice from the Pāṇdya inscriptions cited above. We find the Pallava ruler Nandi III also endowing a lamp at Lalgudi, with the same amount of 60 Paḻam-kācu for one perpetual lamp, as did the Pāṇḍya. This illustrates, not only different region but also different rulers adopted the same standard in money transactions.
The Pallavas who ruled the northern Tamilnadu are seen using the same standards much earlier. In an inscription of Dantivarman Pallava, an endowment of 30 kaḻańju is endowed for one perpetual lamp, in the middle of 9th cent. The inscription comes from Thiruppati, the northern most part of Tamilnadu. (43/sii xii.) Records of other Pallava rulers like Nandi III (57/sii xii). Nrpatunga (66/sii xii, 75/ sii xiv) and Aparājita (87/sii xii, 90/ sii xii) who ruled in the later half of 9th cent., coming from Thiruppati in the north to Trichy in the South, record the gift of same amount of 30 kaḻańju for one perpetual lamp.
They also mention that the kaḻańju so gifted as " ūr-kal-cemmai " i.e. purity tested by the village touch stone, which would indicate that each coin was tested for its purity in the village. This may also be seen against the inscription at Uttaramerur, which stipulates elections to "gold committee" (pon vāriyam) of the village, their qualification and conduct. Also it is seen that there was a standard interest levied on these gold amounting to 3 mańjā·i per kaḻańju which works out to 15% annual interest. This interest rate remained constant for over 200 years as is seen in other records. Also these inscriptions make it clear that kaḻańju is different from kāṇam.
Unit of Endowment under the Cholas
The fixed standard amount of 30 kaḻańju for one perpetual lamp continued to be maintained throughout the 10th cent. under the Imperial Cholas. This information is available from the records of Parāntaka chola 103/sii III and Arinjaya 104/sii III. The interest rate of 15% (3 mańjāḍi) - also continued under the Cholas in the 10th cent. The gold was continued to be tested for purity in the respective villages against the village touch stone (ūr kal cemmai). Also the Pallava and Chola records show that one kaḻańju was equal to 20 mańjāḍi.
A point of interest is that late 9th early 10th cent. record of chola Rajakesarivarman from Thiruvidaimarudur near Kumbakonam, Tanjore district record the gift of "Ěḻak-kācu" for regular supply of plaintain fruits. This suggests that the coins were not accepted by Royal degree for the coin value, but any coin was accepted mostly for its metal value. (No.7/xiii).
It is also possible that the term paḻam-kācu is derived from the usage purāṇa. It is also known that the gold coins were in different denominations. A coin Madurāntakan māḍai, or kācu went by the same term māḍai.
From these we may hold, gold coins of full, half and quarter of a standard kaḻańju weight were available but in all cases each coin was subjected to test both for its fineness and weight before acceptance. All the three also went by same general term kaḻańju or kācu.
Mention must be made here that no inscription calls a gold coin kāṇam. On the other hand they clearly indicate that kaḻańju and kāṇam are different coins.
Srilankan Situation
While kaḻańju, and kalanda of Srilanka records refer to gold, the term kahavano (kārṣhā paṇa) is not found employed in the sense of gold and was in all probability silver.
In a recent publication on some mediaeval gold coins of Srilanka, the author uses term "Kahavaṇo" to all gold coins of Lanka and classifies them typologically. He also cites Buddha ghosha’s commentary on the Vinaya, kahapaṇoti suvarṇamayo vā. (I am not sure this passage identifies suvarṇa with kahapaṇa. The word vā might even suggest they are different. He also suggests it must have been the Roman solidus. He also cites the Kaludiya-Pokuna inscription of Sena II. (853-887), which records the gift of 23 kalanda of gold. Thus the gold was called kalanda in the 9th cent. is evident. kalanda is obviously gold kaḻańju mentioned in several thousand inscriptions of Tamilnadu.
Whether kaḻańju is a minted gold coin or unminted gold (gold of specific weight standard) is a different question. Obviously kaḻańju meant both just gold and also minted gold coin of kaḻańju weight standard. What is important is the same terminology used in Tamilnadu is found in Srilanka in the 9th cent. The author also cites a tenth cent inscription of Dapula IV, gifting 200 kalanda of gold and comes to the conclusion that kalandas are coined gold, and holds kalandas and kahavanas are identical (P3).
The discovery of a gold bar weighing 438.10 grams with its weight inscribed in 7th cent characters, reading 102 kalandai, found at the Abhayagiri vihāra of Anurādhapura is also mentioned by the author, who assumes one kalandai equalled 16 mādhas. This is obviously based on Monier Williams dictionary.
Kalanju and Kahapanas
M.Williams states that Kārṣhāpaṇa might refer to gold, silver or copper and derives the world from "karsha" - a weight (dhātu-pā¶a) and says a coin or weight of different values.
Silver 16 panas = 1 kārsha (silver is commonly called Kahana) or 1280 kowries
copper 90 Rakties = 1 kārsha 176 grains
Monier Williams derives the word kārŔha from the root Krish and also equates it to Akṣha.
If it is so kārsha should have been applied to gold coin quite later. Originally it probably referred to silver or lead coins. The Tamil lexicon holds kāṇam as a gold coin, or a measure of weight. It does not indicate the root of the word. It also mentions kāṇam stands for horse gram, thereby suggesting the weight of kāṇam could be that of a horse gram.
The silver kārshāpaṇa was also called Kahana (Monier williams) which obviously Kāṇa in its Prakrit form. We may hold Kāṇa as identical with Kārshā paṇams that denotes a silver coin.
It is known that ancient silver punch marked coins are called purāṇas. Writing in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic society of Ceylon Branch vol. XX VIII, (No. 70, pg. 11) 1917, P.E. Pieris, refer to them as purāṇas (P.47) and gives three types of them.
The largest main one weighing - 57.6 grains.
1/2 of this was called Kōna and
1/4 this called - Tangka or Padika.
He also refers to 32 such coins found in Kandarodai, and Vallipuram. The bulk from Kandarodai were silver while some were copper coated with silver.
The ancient Sangam Cheras named their coins as pon, kā, and kāṇam. The Chera Āḍukotpāṭṭu Cēralādan gifted 9 kā pon and 100 000 kāṇam to Naccellayār. This would suggest pon is different from Kāṇam. Nārmuḍicēral gifted 41,00,000 pon to Kāppiyanār. (Incidently he wore a gold crown made of one resembling Kalamkāy beads. (kaḻańju) was possibly based on kaḻańju seeds).
Pon is Suvarna and Kāṇam is kāhaṇa or kārshā paṇa obviously silver. The Tamil work, Jivaka cintāmaṇi equates kāṇam with Palamkācu (Old coin purāṇa) A number of silver coins of Ceylon were termed kahapana by parker Ancient cyclon 8568 (parker - P. 589 (1909)
"Histories and inscriptions alike prove that coins called Kahapanas existed in countless numbers in Ceylon in early times, yet no other coin which could possibly represent this money have been discovered”. Parker discusses puraṇas, dharanas or salākas (p.463).
Kahavana is a Silver Coin
This would confirm that the term for Kahavana was used for silver punch marked coins. Some inscriptions of Tamil nadu mention Iḻa-karum-kācu the black coin of Iḻa. It should also refer to silver (or even bad coins) we may possibly identify Kaharano of Srilanka with Iḻa-Karum-kācu.
Further study and critical evaluation may throw more light on the subject.
Ref:
O.M.R. Sirisena, Medieval gold coins of Sri Lanka, Colombo, 2002.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic society, Ceylon Branch, Vol. XXVI, No. 70. 1917.
H. Parkar Ancient-Ceylon First Published 1909, eprinted, 1981.